Subject: Indian Inventions, Discoveries and Other Contributions [Print This Page]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:09 PM Subject: Indian Inventions, Discoveries and Other Contributions
QUOTE:
We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made.
Albert Einstein.
A thread to highlight the achievements of the great Indian civilization.
Ancient India is not typically a civilization that receives a lot of publicity about inventions. However, as with any civilization that last for an extended period of time and flourishes, it has made some notable innovations.
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-22 05:16 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:11 PM
INVENTION OF NUMERALS:
Numerals are found in the inscriptions of Ashoka the Great in the 3rd Century BC. This knowledge traveled from there to Arab countries and from there to Europe and West. In Arab countries even now numerals are known as HINDSE: 'from India'.
Laplace, the French mathematician and physicist, wrote during Napoleon¡¯s time, ¡°It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols. ¡°
-Prof. O.M. Mathew in Bhavan¡¯s Journal.¡±
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:11 PM
INVENTION OF ZERO:
Brahmagupta was the first mathematician to treat Zero (0) as a number and showed its mathematical operations.
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: archie_78 Time: 2007-6-18 07:11 PM
Naan bread! And chicken vindaloo... OK, it gives me ring-sting the next morning, but it's soooooo bloody good!
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:12 PM
INVENTION OF ARITHMETIC:
Arithmetic was discovered by Indians in about 2nd Century BC. Bhaskaracharya¡¯s book 'Lilavathi' is regarded as the first book on modern arithmetic. The Arabs learnt and adopted it from India and spread it to Europe. ¡°In 499 AD Aryabhatta finished his work 'Aryabhatta', giving rules of Arithmetic¡±
(Encyclopedia Britannica).
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:13 PM
INVENTION OF ALGEBRA:
In Western Europe the knowledge of Algebra was borrowed, not from Greece but Arabs who acquired this from India. Algebra is the only Arabic name for Bijaganitha. ¡°Aryabhatta was one of the first to use Algebra¡±
(Encyclopedia Britannica).
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: archie_78 Time: 2007-6-18 07:13 PM
Ohh, and apparantly cards! I love poker, and without Indians I may not be able to bluff people out of their money!
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:14 PM
INVENTION OF GEOMETRY AND TRIGNOMETRY:
The brick work of Harappa and Mohenjodaro excavations shows that the people of ancient India (2500 BC) possessed knowledge of Geometry. Aryabhatta formulated the rules for finding the area of a ¡°triangle¡¯, which led to the origin of Trignometry.
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:15 PM
DISCOVERY OF ASTRONOMY:
The knowledge of the motion of heavenly bodies was discovered by Aryabhatta (499 AD), Latadeva (505 AD), and Brahmagupta (628 AD), for calculating the timing of eclipses. In Surya Sidhanta, Latadeva talked about the earth¡¯s axis and called it SUMEGU. ¡° That the earth is a sphere and it rotates on its own axis¡± was known to Varahamihira and other Indian astronomers much before Copernicus published this theory. (Jewish Encyclopedia)
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:16 PM
INVENTION OF CALENDAR MAKING:
Discovery of measurement of time and discovery of nomenclature of days, months and years and invention of calendar making was made in India. In his book Surya Sidhanta Latadeva (505 AD) divided the year into 12 months, Seven planets of the solar system affect the earth¡¯s atmosphere and their names were added to the seven days of the week, which was accepted all over the world.
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:16 PM
DISCOVERY OF THEORY OF GRAVITATION:
In his book Sidhanta Shiromani, Bhaskaracharya mentions about force of attraction resembling gravity, discovered centuries later by Newton. ( Jewish Encyclopedia)
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:17 PM
INVENTION OF IRON PRODUCTS IN 3000 BC:
The word AYAS occurs in the four Vedas which denotes iron. Ashoka Pillar at Mehrauli, New Delhi and another iron pillar in Karnataka stand proof of India¡¯s metallurgical heritage (a study published in the magazine (The Current Science).
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:18 PM
INVENTION OF COPPER, BRONZE AND ZINC:
The copper and bronze artefacts date back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (2500 BC). According to treatise Rasaratnakar, Zinc was made in around 50 BC at Zawar in Rajasthan (India).
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:18 PM
INVENTION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES, DYES AND CHEMICAL COLOURS:
Chemistry known as Rasayan Shastra was invented in India. Elphinston wrote in his book History of India, "They (ancient Indians) knew how to prepare the sulphate of copper, zinc and iron and carbonates of lead and iron. Rasavidya or Indian alchemy made its appearance around 5th Century AD (National Science Center, New Delhi)."
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-18 07:19 PM
INVENTION OF DECIMAL SYSTEM:
According to Dr. Thomas Arya, a German writer, ¡°The weights used by the Indus Valley (2500 BC) followed a binary system and measurement based on the decimal system¡±. Pierre Laplace said, ¡°How grateful we should be to the Hindus who discovered the great Decimal System!"
http://www.vidyabharati.org/quotedetailf.asp?sno=22
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 01:30 AM
Inventions that are beyond tomorrow
Mandira Nayar
NEW DELHI: Seventy-year-old Mohammad Saidullah does not wait for boats. He can literally "walk" across water without any magic. No Leonardo da Vinci, he invented an amphibious bicycle that "wades" across water to get to his wife, Noor, during a flood in Bihar.
This romantic twist in the tale apart, his invention is not only about the power of love but also about the greater power of imagination. While there may be many other inventors like him in the country who might not have studied the complicated theories of higher physics but have the ability to think out of the box to come up with completely new solutions to old problems, Saidullah is just one of the "discovered" geniuses that India has.
While he was unable to come to Delhi because he was unwell, his invention -- a bright orange bike -- was one of the highlights at a Discovery Channel press conference this past Wednesday.
The channel has tied up with National Innovation Foundation and will be airing short films on a few grassroots innovators in the country like Saidullah during its programme "Beyond Tomorrow" starting this coming Monday. The programme talks about new inventions around the world that will be an integral part of the future. Dressed in tight blue denim jeans and wearing a denim jacket, Prem Singh Saini with four mobile phones is the face of the new generation of farmers in Haryana. Having stopped going to school from Class X, Saini has done what most mobile manufacturers have not managed to do -- use his mobile phone to switch on and off tube-wells.
"You can also switch your AC on and off with the mobile phone. I have also made a robot. It's important that people realise that a boy from a small village in the country can invent so many things, " he said.
Incidentally most of the inventors that came to the Capital with their unique products had other discoveries to their name and were not first-time innovators.
From Remya Jose of Kerala who has a paddle-operated washing machine to Mansukh Prajapati of Gujarat who has his own refrigerator company "Mitticool", these innovators have been working hard to make the lives of others more comfortable.
To keep vegetables fresh for up to five days, Prajapati has made a refrigerator that does not consume electricity and costs only Rs. 2,000. "It takes about eight days to make. The best part of my fridge is that the taste of the vegetables remains the same, unlike regular fridges. Now am working on an "R-O", in which the salty water gets separated, " said Prajapati, a potter by profession.
http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2006021803480200.htm&date=2006/02/18/&prd=th&
NEW PROGRAMME: (From Left) Discovery Networks India managing director Deepak Shourie, National Innovation Foundation executive vice-chairman Anil Gupta and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research director general and National Innovation Foundat ion chairman, R.A. Mashelkar with an amphibious bicycle in New Delhi.
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http://bbs.chinadaily.com.cn/attachment.php?aid=51096
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 01:36 AM
India is widely recognised for its four great inventions in mathematics which have greatly shaped the modern world and without which mathematics wouldn't have come very far as the American historian Will Durant said "India was the mother of our philosophy... of much of our mathematics."
The four great inventions are:
* Invention of Zero
* Invention of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
* Invention of the Binary numeral system
* Invention of the Base 10 system
Possibly India's greatest contribution in Mathematics:
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-19 01:37 AM ]
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397px-Arabic_numerals-en.svg.png (2007-6-19 01:36 AM, 19.05 K) / Download count 148
http://bbs.chinadaily.com.cn/attachment.php?aid=51097
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 01:38 AM
Mathematical Discoveries/Inventions and Conceptual Inventions
* First known precise celestial calculations by Aryabhata
* Earliest known work on Linguistics by Panini
* The first detailed works on Algebra by Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Bh¨¡skara I
* The first known mention of the Fibonacci sequence by Pingala
* The earliest attempt to exaplin gravity
* Trigonometry
* Determining that the Sun is a star
* Determining the number of planets in the Solar System
* First mention of the concept of Heliocentrism by Yajnavalkya in Shatapatha Brahmana
* The concept of the Atom
* Democracy as the Greeks
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 01:55 AM
Billions
Along with the ancient Mayans, the ancient Indians are thought to be one of the earliest civilizations that thought in terms of billions of years. While most ancient civilizations had thought thousands of years into the future, the Hindus have scriptures dealing with events spanning billions of years..
http://patentednews.com/innovations/ancient-india-inventions/21/
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-19 01:58 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 01:56 AM
Hindu concept of the creation of the world
Relating to this is a Hindu concept of the creation of the world.
A 9th century Hindu scripture, The Mahapurana by Jinasena claims that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning and end. And it is based on principles.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 01:58 AM
Theories regarding the sun and Earth
Amazingly, they even had theories regarding the sun and Earth.
Aryabhata, it so happens, was apparently quite sceptical of the widely held doctrines about eclipses and also about the belief that the Sun goes round the Earth. As early as the sixth century, he talked of the diurnal motion of the earth and the appearance of the Sun going round it.
Author: northwest Time: 2007-6-19 01:58 AM
My respect to you Chang *salute*
You are some of the Chinese sons that memorize and record several of earth's greatest civilizations that make what us humanity today!
Our ancestors should be proud of you.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 01:59 AM
Binary System
A Mathematician named Pingala also developed a numbering system similar to what we refer to as the binary system. They were also the first to use 0 as a placeholder in numbers such as 809 and 89. While the Babylonians had a concept that was similar to zero, it was merely used as a placeholder and was often just a blank space.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 02:01 AM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by northwest at 2007-6-19 01:58
My respect to you Chang *salute*
You are some of the Chinese sons that memorize and record several of earth's greatest civilizations that make what us humanity today!
Our ancestors should be ...
Thanks for your encouraging words, northwest.
I am doing this as a source of information.
Feel free to make any comments or observations.
Author: northwest Time: 2007-6-19 02:09 AM
India's civilization is one of humanity's 4 great civilizations.
They existed almost as long as Chinese civilizations' and surely will attain again the greatness it already experienced before.
History repeat itself.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 02:14 AM
Throughout history peoples of all nations have looked to India as the most creative and original of civilizations. To be specific, medieval and ancient scholars from Arabia, Spain, China and even Greece¡ª all acknowledged their indebtedness to Indian science. For example, a medieval Arab scholar Sa'id ibn Ahmad al-Andalusi (1029-1070) wrote in his Tabaqat al-'umam, one of the earliest books on history of sciences:
"The first nation to have cultivated science is India. ... India is known for the wisdom of its people. Over many centuries, all
the kings of the past have recognized the ability of the Indians in all the branches of knowledge.
"The kings of China have stated that the kings of the world are five in number and all the people of the world are their
subjects. They mentioned the king of China, the king of India, the king of the Turks, the king of the Persians, and the king of
the Romans.
"... They referred to the king of India as the "king of wisdom" because of the Indians' careful treatment of 'ulum [sciences]
and all the branches of knowledge.
"The Indians, known to all nations for many centuries, are the metal [essence] of wisdom, the source of fairness and
objectivity. They are people of sublime pensiveness, universal apologues, and useful and rare inventions.
"... To their credit the Indians have made great strides in the study of numbers and of geometry. They have acquired
immense information and reached the zenith in their knowledge of the movements of the stars [astronomy] ... After all that
they have surpassed all other peoples in their knowledge of medical sciences ..."
When the necessary allowance is made for the exuberance of the writer and even some exaggeration, it is clear that no one until
the coming of the modern Europeans (and their Indian disciples) questioned the antiquity of Indian science. In his book al-Andalusi
goes on to give details of several Indian texts on astronomy and tells us that the Arab scholars used them in preparing their own
almanacs.
Not only Medieval Arabs, even some early Christian scholars recognized Indian contributions. Writing in 662 AD, when the
Byzantine Empire was its height and it was thought that there was no knowledge beyond Greek knowledge, Sebokht, the Bishop of
Qinnesrin in North Syria observed:
"I will omit all discussion of the science of the Hindus [Indians], a people not the same as Syrians, their subtle discoveries in
the science of astronomy, discoveries more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians; their valuable
method of calculation [the decimal system]; their computing that surpasses description. I wish only to say that this
computation is done by means of nine signs. If those who believe because they speak Greek, that they have reached the
limits of science should know these things, they would be convinced that there are also others who know
something."
The reference of course is to the famous place decimal system using zero invented by the Hindus. (It is often called the Arabic
numeral system, but the Arabs themselves called it the Indian system acknowledging their indebtedness to India.) In fact the Greek
(and the Roman) method of computing and solving equations was cumbersome in the extreme when compared to the method used
by Indians. Mathematics as we know today would hardly be possible without this invention¡ª probably the greatest single advance
in the history of mathematics.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 02:26 AM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by northwest at 2007-6-19 02:09
India's civilization is one of humanity's 4 great civilizations.
They existed almost as long as Chinese civilizations' and surely will attain again the greatness it already experienced before.
...
Yes it would be nice to see that happen.
Can you imagine how mankind will progress when India start to make contributions for everyones benefit?
QUOTE:
India of the ages is not dead nor has she spoken her last creative word; she lives and has still something to do for herself and the human peoples. And that which must seek now to awake is not an anglicised oriental people, docile pupil of the West and doomed to repeat the cycle of the occident's success and failure, but still the ancient immemorable Shakti recovering her deepest self, lifting her head higher towards the supreme source of light and strength and turning to discover the complete meaning and a vaster form of her Dharma.
-- Sri Aurobindo
http://voiceofdharma.com/books/ir/IR_frontpage.htm
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 02:29 AM
India: Science & Technology
A New Frontier
The tradition of science and technology (S&T) in India is over 5,000 years old. A renaissance was witnessed in the first half of the 20th century. The S&T infrastructure has grown up from about Rs. 10 million at the time of independence in 1947 to Rs. 30 billion. Significant achievements have been made in the areas of nuclear and space science, electronics and defence. The government is committed to making S&T an integral part of the socio-economic development of the country.
India has the third largest scientific and technical manpower in the world; 162 universities award 4,000 doctorates and 35,000 postgraduate degrees and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research runs 40 research laboratories that have made some significant achievements. In the field of Missile Launch Technology, India is among the top five nations of the world.
Science and technology, however, is used as an effective instrument for growth and change. It is being brought into the mainstream of economic planning in the sectors of agriculture, industry and services. The country's resources are used to derive the maximum output for the benefit of society and improvement in the quality of life. About 85 per cent of the funds for S&T come directly or indirectly from the Government. The S&T infrastructure in the country accounts for more than one per cent of the GNP. S&T in India is entering a new frontier.
http://www.hcilondon.net/india-overview/science-technology/index.html
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 02:30 AM
Atomic Energy
The prime objective of India's nuclear energy programme is the development and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes such as power generation, applications in agriculture, medicine, industry, research and other areas.
India is today recognised as one of the most advanced countries in nuclear technology including production of source materials. The country is self-reliant and has mastered the expertise covering the complete nuclear cycle from exploration and mining to power generation and waste management. Accelerators and research and power reactors are now designed and built indigenously. The sophisticated variable energy cyclotron at Kolkata and a medium-energy heavy ion accelerator 'pelletron' set up recently at Mumbai are national research facilities in the frontier areas of science.
As part of its programme of peaceful uses of atomic energy, India has also embarked on a programme of nuclear power generation. Currently eight nuclear stations are producing eight billion kilowatt of electricity. Four more nuclear power stations are planned. The new nuclear reactors are designed in India. The peaceful nuclear programme also includes producing radioisotopes for use in agriculture, medicine, industry and research.
Author: mengzhi Time: 2007-6-19 04:13 AM
Dear Chang,
Congratulation for compiling such an interesting list of Indian contribution to knowledge , and in such fine details. They have a place in the great civilization of the world. These are the permanent and strong offerings to the betterment of mankind ; applicable to daily practical lives and the future benefits. Too often genuine human and academic discoveries have been overshadowed by the celebration of the mediocre and inane like " Big Brother " or similar trashy western " yellow culture ". Thank you for the interesting reads.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:37 AM
Thanks for the sentiments.
QUOTE:
Originally posted by mengzhi at 2007-6-19 04:13
Dear Chang,
Congratulation for compiling such an interesting list of Indian contribution to knowledge , and in such fine details. They have a place in the great civilization of the world. These ...
I thought that it would be a good idea to do something worthwhile with my time.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:38 AM
Space
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), under the Department of Space (DOS), is responsible for research, development and operationalisation of space systems in the areas of satellite communications, remote sensing for resource survey, environmental monitoring, meteorological services etc. DOS is also the nodal agency for the Physical Research Laboratory, which conducts research in the areas of space science, and the National Remote Sensing Agency, which deploys modern remote sensing techniques for natural resource surveys and provides operational services to user agencies. India is the only third world country to develop its own remote sensing satellite.
India joined a select group of six nations on October 15, 1994, when the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) successfully accomplished its mission of placing the 800 Kg remote sensing satellite, IRS-P2, in the intended orbit. Earlier in May, the fourth developmental flight of the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) achieved its mission by placing the 113 Kg SROSS-C2 scientific satellite in a near-earth orbit. India is well on its way to developing a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) capable of putting 2000 Kg satellites into space. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is currently trying to develop an indigenous cryogenic engine for GSLV. A GSLV model has already been tested in wind tunnel.
The INSAT series of satellite launched earlier are performing well and provide vital services for telecommunications, television, meteorology, disaster warning and distress detection. The latest INSAT series include new features like Ku-band transponders and mobile satellite services transponders.
The remote-sensing satellites, launched in 1988 and 1991, have already become the mainstay of the natural resource management system of the country.
The projected launch of advanced remote sensing satellites will not only enhance the scope of their application, but will also offer commercial service to other countries.
The Indian achievement in the application of space-based remote sensing technology has led a US company to enter into an agreement for marketing the data from Indian satellites globally.
India's progress in space technology has attracted worldwide attention and demand, with leasing agreements for marketing of IRS data and supply of space hardware and services. India also believes in co-operation in space with agencies all over the world. A high-level UN team selected India for setting up a UN Centre for Space Science and Technology Education. India is on the threshold of achieving self-reliance in the launch capability. It will be a befitting tribute to the father of the Indian space programme, Dr. Vikaram Sarabhai, whose 80th birth anniversary was observed in August 1996.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:39 AM
Electronics
The Department of Electronics plays the promotional role for the development and use of electronics for socio-economic development. Many initiatives have been taken for a balanced growth of the electronics industry. The basic thrust has been towards a general rationalisation of the licensing policy with an emphasis on promotion rather than regulation, besides achieving economy of scale with up-to-date technology. A multi-pronged approach has been evolved for result-oriented R&D with special emphasis on microelectronics, telematics, and high-performance computing and software development.
Application of electronics in areas such as agriculture, health and service sectors has also been receiving special attention. For upgrading the quality of indigenously manufactured products, a series of test and development centres and regional laboratories have been set up. These centres for electronic design and technology help small and medium electronics units. A number of R&D projects have been initiated to meet the growing requirements of the industry.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:39 AM
Oceanography
India has a coastline of more than 7,600 km and 1,250 islands, with its Exclusive Economic Zone covering over 2 million sq. km and continental shelf extending up to 350 nautical miles. The Department of Ocean Development was established in 1981 to ensure optimum utilisation of living resources, exploitation of non-living resources such as hydrocarbons and minerals, and to harness ocean energy. Two research vessels, ORV Sagar Kanya and FROV Sagar Sampada, are assessing and evaluating the resource potential.
Survey and exploration efforts have been directed to assess sea bed topography, and concentration and quality of mineral nodules. In August 1987, India was allotted a mine site of 150,000 sq. km in the central Indian Ocean for further exploration and development of resources. India is the only developing country to have qualified for Pioneer Status by the UN Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1982, and it is the first country in the world to have secured registration of a mine site.
India has sent 13 scientific research expeditions to Antarctica since 1981, and has established a permanently manned base, Dakshin Gangotri. A second permanent station, an entirely indigenous effort, was completed by the eighth expedition. The objective is to study the ozone layer and other important constituents, optical aurora, geomagnetic pulsation and related phenomena. By virtue of its scientific research activities, India acquired Consultative Membership of the Antarctic Treaty in 1983 and acceded to the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources in July 1985. India is also a member of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, and has played a significant role in adopting a Minerals Regime for Antarctica in June 1988.
A National Institute of Ocean Technology was set up for the development of ocean-related technologies. It is also responsible for harnessing resources of the coastal belts and islands.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:40 AM
Biotechnology
India has been the forerunner among the developing countries in promoting multi-disciplinary activities in this area, recognising the practically unlimited possibility of their applications in increasing agricultural and industrial production, and in improving human and animal life. The nucleus of research in this area is the National Biotechnology Board, constituted in 1982.
A Department of Biotechnology was created in 1986. Recently, the Biotechnology Consortium India Ltd. was set up. It will play the role of a catalyst in bridging the gap between research and development, industrial and financial institutions. Some of the new initiatives taken include developing techniques for gene mapping, conservation of biodiversity and bioindicators research, special biotechnology programmes for the benefit of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and activities in the area of plantation crops.
The areas which have been receiving attention are cattle herd improvement through embryo transfer technology, in vitro propagation of disease resistant plant varieties for obtaining higher yields, and development of vaccines for various diseases.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
CSIR was established in 1942, and is today the premier institution for scientific and industrial research. It has a network of 40 laboratories, two cooperative industrial research institutions and more than 100 extension and field centres. The council's research programmes are directed towards effective utilisation of the country's natural resources and development of new processes and products for economic progress. It is now playing a leading role in the fulfilment of the technology missions evolved by the Government.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:53 AM
The Decimal System in Harappa
In India a decimal system was already in place during the Harappan period, as indicated by an analysis of Harappan weights and measures. Weights corresponding to ratios of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 have been identified, as have scales with decimal divisions. A particularly notable characteristic of Harappan weights and measures is their remarkable accuracy. A bronze rod marked in units of 0.367 inches points to the degree of precision demanded in those times. Such scales were particularly important in ensuring proper implementation of town planning rules that required roads of fixed widths to run at right angles to each other, for drains to be constructed of precise measurements, and for homes to be constructed according to specified guidelines. The existence of a gradated system of accurately marked weights points to the development of trade and commerce in Harappan society.
http://india_resource.tripod.com/mathematics.htm
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:54 AM
Mathematical Activity in the Vedic Period
In the Vedic period, records of mathematical activity are mostly to be found in Vedic texts associated with ritual activities. However, as in many other early agricultural civilizations, the study of arithmetic and geometry was also impelled by secular considerations. Thus, to some extent early mathematical developments in India mirrored the developments in Egypt, Babylon and China . The system of land grants and agricultural tax assessments required accurate measurement of cultivated areas. As land was redistributed or consolidated, problems of mensuration came up that required solutions. In order to ensure that all cultivators had equivalent amounts of irrigated and non-irrigated lands and tracts of equivalent fertility - individual farmers in a village often had their holdings broken up in several parcels to ensure fairness. Since plots could not all be of the same shape - local administrators were required to convert rectangular plots or triangular plots to squares of equivalent sizes and so on. Tax assessments were based on fixed proportions of annual or seasonal crop incomes, but could be adjusted upwards or downwards based on a variety of factors. This meant that an understanding of geometry and arithmetic was virtually essential for revenue administrators. Mathematics was thus brought into the service of both the secular and the ritual domains.
Arithmetic operations (Ganit) such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares, cubes and roots are enumerated in the Narad Vishnu Purana attributed to Ved Vyas (pre-1000 BC). Examples of geometric knowledge (rekha-ganit) are to be found in the Sulva-Sutras of Baudhayana (800 BC) and Apasthmaba (600 BC) which describe techniques for the construction of ritual altars in use during the Vedic era. It is likely that these texts tapped geometric knowledge that may have been acquired much earlier, possibly in the Harappan period. Baudhayana's Sutra displays an understanding of basic geometric shapes and techniques of converting one geometric shape (such as a rectangle) to another of equivalent (or multiple, or fractional) area (such as a square). While some of the formulations are approximations, others are accurate and reveal a certain degree of practical ingenuity as well as some theoretical understanding of basic geometric principles. Modern methods of multiplication and addition probably emerged from the techniques described in the Sulva-Sutras.
Pythagoras - the Greek mathematician and philosopher who lived in the 6th C B.C was familiar with the Upanishads and learnt his basic geometry from the Sulva Sutras. An early statement of what is commonly known as the Pythagoras theorem is to be found in Baudhayana's Sutra: The chord which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area of double the size. A similar observation pertaining to oblongs is also noted. His Sutra also contains geometric solutions of a linear equation in a single unknown. Examples of quadratic equations also appear. Apasthamba's sutra (an expansion of Baudhayana's with several original contributions) provides a value for the square root of 2 that is accurate to the fifth decimal place. Apasthamba also looked at the problems of squaring a circle, dividing a segment into seven equal parts, and a solution to the general linear equation. Jain texts from the 6th C BC such as the Surya Pragyapti describe ellipses.
Modern-day commentators are divided on how some of the results were generated. Some believe that these results came about through hit and trial - as rules of thumb, or as generalizations of observed examples. Others believe that once the scientific method came to be formalized in the Nyaya-Sutras - proofs for such results must have been provided, but these have either been lost or destroyed, or else were transmitted orally through the Gurukul system, and only the final results were tabulated in the texts. In any case, the study of Ganit i.e mathematics was given considerable importance in the Vedic period. The Vedang Jyotish (1000 BC) includes the statement: "Just as the feathers of a peacock and the jewel-stone of a snake are placed at the highest point of the body (at the forehead), similarly, the position of Ganit is the highest amongst all branches of the Vedas and the Shastras."
(Many centuries later, Jain mathematician from Mysore, Mahaviracharya further emphasized the importance of mathematics: "Whatever object exists in this moving and non-moving world, cannot be understood without the base of Ganit (i.e. mathematics)".)
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:54 AM
Panini and Formal Scientific Notation
A particularly important development in the history of Indian science that was to have a profound impact on all mathematical treatises that followed was the pioneering work by Panini (6th C BC) in the field of Sanskrit grammar and linguistics. Besides expounding a comprehensive and scientific theory of phonetics, phonology and morphology, Panini provided formal production rules and definitions describing Sanskrit grammar in his treatise called Asthadhyayi. Basic elements such as vowels and consonants, parts of speech such as nouns and verbs were placed in classes. The construction of compound words and sentences was elaborated through ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner similar to formal language theory.
Today, Panini's constructions can also be seen as comparable to modern definitions of a mathematical function. G G Joseph, in The crest of the peacock argues that the algebraic nature of Indian mathematics arises as a consequence of the structure of the Sanskrit language. Ingerman in his paper titled Panini-Backus form finds Panini's notation to be equivalent in its power to that of Backus - inventor of the Backus Normal Form used to describe the syntax of modern computer languages. Thus Panini's work provided an example of a scientific notational model that could have propelled later mathematicians to use abstract notations in characterizing algebraic equations and presenting algebraic theorems and results in a scientific format.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:56 AM
Philosophy and Mathematics
Philosophical doctrines also had a profound influence on the development of mathematical concepts and formulations. Like the Upanishadic world view, space and time were considered limitless in Jain cosmology. This led to a deep interest in very large numbers and definitions of infinite numbers. Infinite numbers were created through recursive formulae, as in the Anuyoga Dwara Sutra. Jain mathematicians recognized five different types of infinities: infinite in one direction, in two directions, in area, infinite everywhere and perpetually infinite. Permutations and combinations are listed in the Bhagvati Sutras (3rd C BC) and Sathananga Sutra (2nd C BC).
Jain set theory probably arose in parallel with the Syadvada system of Jain epistemology in which reality was described in terms of pairs of truth conditions and state changes. The Anuyoga Dwara Sutra demonstrates an understanding of the law of indeces and uses it to develop the notion of logarithms. Terms like Ardh Aached , Trik Aached, and Chatur Aached are used to denote log base 2, log base 3 and log base 4 respectively. In Satkhandagama various sets are operated upon by logarithmic functions to base two, by squaring and extracting square roots, and by raising to finite or infinite powers. The operations are repeated to produce new sets. In other works the relation of the number of combinations to the coefficients occurring in the binomial expansion is noted.
Since Jain epistemology allowed for a degree of indeterminacy in describing reality, it probably helped in grappling with indeterminate equations and finding numerical approximations to irrational numbers.
Buddhist literature also demonstrates an awareness of indeterminate and infinite numbers. Buddhist mathematics was classified either as Garna (Simple Mathematics) or Sankhyan (Higher Mathematics). Numbers were deemed to be of three types: Sankheya (countable), Asankheya (uncountable) and Anant (infinite).
Philosophical formulations concerning Shunya - i.e. emptiness or the void may have facilitated in the introduction of the concept of zero. While the zero (bindu) as an empty place holder in the place-value numeral system appears much earlier, algebraic definitions of the zero and it's relationship to mathematical functions appear in the mathematical treatises of Brahmagupta in the 7th C AD. Although scholars are divided about how early the symbol for zero came to be used in numeric notation in India, (Ifrah arguing that the use of zero is already implied in Aryabhatta) tangible evidence for the use of the zero begins to proliferate towards the end of the Gupta period. Between the 7th C and the 11th C, Indian numerals developed into their modern form, and along with the symbols denoting various mathematical functions (such as plus, minus, square root etc) eventually became the foundation stones of modern mathematical notation.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:58 AM
The Indian Numeral System
The Indian notational system reached the Western world through the Arabs and has now been accepted as universal. Several factors contributed to this development whose significance is perhaps best stated by French mathematician, Laplace: "The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. It's simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions."
Brilliant as it was, this invention was no accident. In India, almost everything was in place to favor such a development. There was already a long and established history in the use of decimal numbers, and philosophical and cosmological constructs encouraged a creative and expansive approach to number theory. Panini's studies in linguistic theory and formal language and the powerful role of symbolism and representational abstraction in art and architecture may have also provided an impetus, as might have the rationalist doctrines and the exacting epistemology of the Nyaya Sutras, and the innovative abstractions of the Syadavada and Buddhist schools of learning.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 06:59 AM
Influence of Trade and Commerce, Importance of Astronomy
The growth of trade and commerce, particularly lending and borrowing demanded an understanding of both simple and compound interest which probably stimulated the interest in arithmetic and geometric series. Brahmagupta's description of negative numbers as debts and positive numbers as fortunes points to a link between trade and mathematical study. Knowledge of astronomy - particularly knowledge of the tides and the stars was of great import to trading communities who crossed oceans or deserts at night. This is borne out by numerous references in the Jataka tales and several other folk-tales. The young person who wished to embark on a commercial venture was inevitably required to first gain some grounding in astronomy. This led to a proliferation of teachers of astronomy, who in turn received training at universities such as at Kusumpura (Bihar) or Ujjain (Central India) or at smaller local colleges or Gurukuls. This also led to the exchange of texts on astronomy and mathematics amongst scholars and the transmission of knowledge from one part of India to another. Virtually every Indian state produced great mathematicians who wrote commentaries on the works of other mathematicians (who may have lived and worked in a different part of India many centuries earlier). Sanskrit served as the common medium of scientific communication.
The science of astronomy was also spurred by the need to have accurate calendars and a better understanding of climate and rainfall patterns for timely sowing and choice of crops. At the same time, religion and astrology also played a role in creating an interest in astronomy and a negative fallout of this irrational influence was the rejection of scientific theories that were far ahead of their time. One of the greatest scientists of the Gupta period - Aryabhatta (born in 476 AD, Kusumpura, Bihar) provided a systematic treatment of the position of the planets in space. He correctly posited the axial rotation of the earth, and inferred correctly that the orbits of the planets were ellipses. He also correctly deduced that the moon and the planets shined by reflected sunlight and provided a valid explanation for the solar and lunar eclipses rejecting the superstitions and mythical belief systems surrounding the phenomenon. Although Bhaskar I (born Saurashtra, 6th C, and follower of the Asmaka school of science, Nizamabad, Andhra ) recognized his genius and the tremendous value of his scientific contributions, some later astronomers continued to believe in a static earth and rejected his rational explanations of the eclipses. But in spite of such setbacks, Aryabhatta had a profound influence on the astronomers and mathematicians who followed him, particularly on those from the Asmaka school.
Mathematics played a vital role in Aryabhatta's revolutionary understanding of the solar system. His calculations on pi, the circumferance of the earth (62832 miles) and the length of the solar year (within about 13 minutes of the modern calculation) were remarkably close approximations. In making such calculations, Aryabhatta had to solve several mathematical problems that had not been addressed before including problems in algebra (beej-ganit) and trigonometry (trikonmiti).
Bhaskar I continued where Aryabhatta left off, and discussed in further detail topics such as the longitudes of the planets; conjunctions of the planets with each other and with bright stars; risings and settings of the planets; and the lunar crescent. Again, these studies required still more advanced mathematics and Bhaskar I expanded on the trigonometric equations provided by Aryabhatta, and like Aryabhatta correctly assessed pi to be an irrational number. Amongst his most important contributions was his formula for calculating the sine function which was 99% accurate. He also did pioneering work on indeterminate equations and considered for the first time quadrilaterals with all the four sides unequal and none of the opposite sides parallel.
Another important astronomer/mathematician was Varahamira (6th C, Ujjain) who compiled previously written texts on astronomy and made important additions to Aryabhatta's trigonometric formulas. His works on permutations and combinations complemented what had been previously achieved by Jain mathematicians and provided a method of calculation of nCr that closely resembles the much more recent Pascal's Triangle. In the 7th century, Brahmagupta did important work in enumerating the basic principles of algebra. In addition to listing the algebraic properties of zero, he also listed the algebraic properties of negative numbers. His work on solutions to quadratic indeterminate equations anticipated the work of Euler and Lagrange.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 07:00 AM
Emergence of Calculus
In the course of developing a precise mapping of the lunar eclipse, Aryabhatta was obliged to introduce the concept of infinitesimals - i.e. tatkalika gati to designate the infinitesimal, or near instantaneous motion of the moon, and express it in the form of a basic differential equation. Aryabhatta's equations were elaborated on by Manjula (10th C) and Bhaskaracharya (12th C) who derived the differential of the sine function. Later mathematicians used their intuitive understanding of integration in deriving the areas of curved surfaces and the volumes enclosed by them.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 07:00 AM
Applied Mathematics, Solutions to Practical Problems
Developments also took place in applied mathematics such as in creation of trigonometric tables and measurement units. Yativrsabha's work Tiloyapannatti (6th C) gives various units for measuring distances and time and also describes the system of infinite time measures.
In the 9th C, Mahaviracharya ( Mysore) wrote Ganit Saar Sangraha where he described the currently used method of calculating the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of given numbers. He also derived formulae to calculate the area of an ellipse and a quadrilateral inscribed within a circle (something that had also been looked at by Brahmagupta) The solution of indeterminate equations also drew considerable interest in the 9th century, and several mathematicians contributed approximations and solutions to different types of indeterminate equations.
In the late 9th C, Sridhara (probably Bengal) provided mathematical formulae for a variety of practical problems involving ratios, barter, simple interest, mixtures, purchase and sale, rates of travel, wages, and filling of cisterns. Some of these examples involved fairly complicated solutions and his Patiganita is considered an advanced mathematical work. Sections of the book were also devoted to arithmetic and geometric progressions, including progressions with fractional numbers or terms, and formulas for the sum of certain finite series are provided. Mathematical investigation continued into the 10th C. Vijayanandi (of Benares, whose Karanatilaka was translated by Al-Beruni into Arabic) and Sripati of Maharashtra are amongst the prominent mathematicians of the century.
The leading light of 12th C Indian mathematics was Bhaskaracharya who came from a long-line of mathematicians and was head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain. He left several important mathematical texts including the Lilavati and Bijaganita and the Siddhanta Shiromani, an astronomical text. He was the first to recognize that certain types of quadratic equations could have two solutions. His Chakrawaat method of solving indeterminate solutions preceded European solutions by several centuries, and in his Siddhanta Shiromani he postulated that the earth had a gravitational force, and broached the fields of infinitesimal calculation and integration. In the second part of this treatise, there are several chapters relating to the study of the sphere and it's properties and applications to geography, planetary mean motion, eccentric epicyclical model of the planets, first visibilities of the planets, the seasons, the lunar crescent etc. He also discussed astronomical instruments and spherical trigonometry. Of particular interest are his trigonometric equations: sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b; sin(a - b) = sin a cos b - cos a sin b;
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 07:01 AM
The Spread of Indian Mathematics
The study of mathematics appears to slow down after the onslaught of the Islamic invasions and the conversion of colleges and universities to madrasahs. But this was also the time when Indian mathematical texts were increasingly being translated into Arabic and Persian. Although Arab scholars relied on a variety of sources including Babylonian, Syriac, Greek and some Chinese texts, Indian mathematical texts played a particularly important role. Scholars such as Ibn Tariq and Al-Fazari (8th C, Baghdad), Al-Kindi (9th C, Basra), Al-Khwarizmi (9th C. Khiva), Al-Qayarawani (9th C, Maghreb, author of Kitab fi al-hisab al-hindi), Al-Uqlidisi (10th C, Damascus, author of The book of Chapters in Indian Arithmetic), Ibn-Sina (Avicenna), Ibn al-Samh (Granada, 11th C, Spain), Al-Nasawi (Khurasan, 11th C, Persia), Al-Beruni (11th C, born Khiva, died Afghanistan), Al-Razi (Teheran), and Ibn-Al-Saffar (11th C, Cordoba) were amongst the many who based their own scientific texts on translations of Indian treatises. Records of the Indian origin of many proofs, concepts and formulations were obscured in the later centuries, but the enormous contributions of Indian mathematics was generously acknowledged by several important Arabic and Persian scholars, especially in Spain. Abbasid scholar Al-Gaheth wrote: " India is the source of knowledge, thought and insight¡±. Al-Maoudi (956 AD) who travelled in Western India also wrote about the greatness of Indian science. Said Al-Andalusi, an 11th C Spanish scholar and court historian was amongst the most enthusiastic in his praise of Indian civilization, and specially remarked on Indian achievements in the sciences and in mathematics. Of course, eventually, Indian algebra and trigonometry reached Europe through a cycle of translations, traveling from the Arab world to Spain and Sicily, and eventually penetrating all of Europe. At the same time, Arabic and Persian translations of Greek and Egyptian scientific texts become more readily available in India.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 07:02 AM
The Kerala School
Although it appears that original work in mathematics ceased in much of Northern India after the Islamic conquests, Benaras survived as a center for mathematical study, and an important school of mathematics blossomed in Kerala. Madhava (14th C, Kochi) made important mathematical discoveries that would not be identified by European mathematicians till at least two centuries later. His series expansion of the cos and sine functions anticipated Newton by almost three centuries. Historians of mathematics, Rajagopal, Rangachari and Joseph considered his contributions instrumental in taking mathematics to the next stage, that of modern classical analysis. Nilkantha (15th C, Tirur, Kerala) extended and elaborated upon the results of Madhava while Jyesthadeva (16th C, Kerala) provided detailed proofs of the theorems and derivations of the rules contained in the works of Madhava and Nilkantha. It is also notable that Jyesthadeva's Yuktibhasa which contained commentaries on Nilkantha's Tantrasamgraha included elaborations on planetary theory later adopted by Tycho Brahe, and mathematics that anticipated work by later Europeans. Chitrabhanu (16th C, Kerala) gave integer solutions to twenty-one types of systems of two algebraic equations, using both algebraic and geometric methods in developing his results. Important discoveries by the Kerala mathematicians included the Newton-Gauss interpolation formula, the formula for the sum of an infinite series, and a series notation for pi. Charles Whish (1835, published in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland) was one of the first Westerners to recognize that the Kerala school had anticipated by almost 300 years many European developments in the field.
Yet, few modern compendiums on the history of mathematics have paid adequate attention to the often pioneering and revolutionary contributions of Indian mathematicians. But as this essay amply demonstrates, a significant body of mathematical works were produced in the Indian subcontinent. The science of mathematics played a pivotal role not only in the industrial revolution but in the scientific developments that have occurred since. No other branch of science is complete without mathematics. Not only did India provide the financial capital for the industrial revolution (see the essay on colonization) India also provided vital elements of the scientific foundation without which humanity could not have entered this modern age of science and high technology.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 07:12 AM
Science and technology in ancient India covered many major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy and physics, metallurgy, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games.
According to the 19th century British historian, Grant Duff:
"
QUOTE:
Many of the advances in the sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India centuries ago."
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 07:13 AM
Astronomy
Ancient India¡¯s contributions to astronomy are well known and documented. The earliest references to astronomy are found in the Rig Veda, which are dated to be from 4500 BC. By 500 AD, ancient Indian astronomy emerged as an important part of Indian studies and its affect is seen in several treatises of that period. In some instances, astronomical principles were borrowed to explain matters pertaining to astrology (called Jyotisha in India), like the casting of a horoscope. Apart from this link of astronomy to astrology in ancient India, the science of astronomy continued to develop independently and culminated in original findings such as:
* The calculation of occurrences of eclipses
* Calculation of Earth¡¯s circumference
* Theorizing about gravity
* Determining that the Sun is a star
* Determining the number of planets in the Solar System
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-19 07:14 AM
Vedic astronomy
There are astronomical references of chronological significance in the Vedas. Some Vedic notices mark the beginning of the year and that of the vernal equinox in Orion; this was the case around 4500 BC. Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India. The texts that describe their designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BC, but their contents appear to be much older.
A text on Hindu astronomy was written by Lagadha.
The earliest concept of a heliocentric model of the solar system, in which the Sun that is at the centre of the solar system and the Earth that is orbiting it, is found in several Vedic Sanskrit texts written in ancient India.
The Aitareya Brahmana (2.7) (c. 9th¨C8th century BC) states: "The Sun never sets nor rises. When people think the sun is setting, it is not so; they are mistaken." This indicates that the Sun is stationary (hence the Earth is moving around it), which is elaborated in a later commentary Vishnu Purana (2.8) (c. 1st century), which states: "The sun is stationed for all time, in the middle of the day. [...] Of the sun, which is always in one and the same place, there is neither setting nor rising."
Yajnavalkya (c. 3rd millennium BC) recognized that the Earth was round and believed that the Sun was "the centre of the spheres" as described in the Vedas at the time. His astronomical text Shatapatha Brahmana (8.7.3.10) stated: "The sun strings these worlds - the earth, the planets, the atmosphere - to himself on a thread." He recognized that the Sun was much larger than the Earth, which would have influenced this early heliocentric concept. He also accurately measured the relative distances of the Sun and the Moon from the Earth as 108 times the diameters of these heavenly bodies, almost close to the modern measurements of 107.6 for the Sun and 110.6 for the Moon. (However this could be coincidence, since 108 was a sacred Hindu number.)
Based on his heliocentric model, Yajnavalkya proposed a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the Sun and the Moon, which gives the average length of the tropical year as 365.24675 days, which is only six minutes longer than the modern value of 365.24220 days. This estimate for the length of the tropical year remained the most accurate anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.
There is an old Sanskrit shloka (couplet) which also states "Sarva Dishanaam, Suryaha, Suryaha, Suryaha" which means that there are suns in all directions. This couplet which describes the night sky as full of suns, indicates that in ancient times Indian astronomers had arrived at the important discovery that the stars visible at night are similar to the Sun visible during day time. In other words, it was recognized that the sun is also a star, though the nearest one. This understanding is demonstrated in another Sloka which says that when one sun sinks below the horizon, a thousand suns take its place.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:36 AM
Grandiose time scales
Hinduism¡¯s understanding of time is as grandiose as time itself. While most cultures base their cosmologies on familiar units such as few hundreds or thousands of years, the Hindu concept of time embraces billions and trillions of years. The Puranas describe time units from the infinitesimal truti, lasting 1/1,000,0000 of a second to a mahamantavara of 311 trillion years. Hindu sages describe time as cyclic, an endless procession of creation, preservation and dissolution. Scientists such as Carl Sagan have expressed amazement at the accuracy of space and time descriptions given by the ancient rishis and saints, who fathomed the secrets of the universe through their mystically awakened senses.
(source: Hinduism Today April/May/June 2007 p. 14).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:37 AM
Estimate of the age of the earth
Professor Arthur Holmes (1895-1965) geologist, professor at the University of Durham. He writes regarding the age of the earth in his great book, The Age of Earth (1913) as follows:
"Long before it became a scientific aspiration to estimate the age of the earth, many elaborate systems of the world chronology had been devised by the sages of antiquity. The most remarkable of these occult time-scales is that of the ancient Hindus, whose astonishing concept of the Earth's duration has been traced back to Manusmriti, a sacred book."
When the Hindu calculation of the present age of the earth and the expanding universe could make Professor Holmes so astonished, the precision with which the Hindu calculation regarding the age of the entire Universe was made would make any man spellbound.
(source: Hinduism and Scientific Quest - By T. R. R. Iyengar p. 20-21).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 03:38 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:39 AM
Relativity
Alan Watts, a professor, graduate school dean and research fellow of Harvard University, drew heavily on the insights of Vedanta. Watts became well known in the 1960s as a pioneer in bringing Eastern philosophy to the West. He wrote:
"To the philosophers of India, however, Relativity is no new discovery, just as the concept of light years is no matter for astonishment to people used to thinking of time in millions of kalpas, ( A kalpa is about 4,320,000 years). The fact that the wise men of India have not been concerned with technological applications of this knowledge arises from the circumstance that technology is but one of innumerable ways of applying it."
It is, indeed, a remarkable circumstance that when Western civilization discovers Relativity it applies it to the manufacture of atom-bombs, whereas Oriental civilization applies it to the development of new states of consciousness."
(source: Spiritual Practices of India - By Frederic Spiegelberg Introduction by Alan Watts p. 8-9).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:41 AM
Dick Teresi author and coauthor of several books about science and technology, including The God Particle. He is cofounder of Omni magazine and has written for Discover, The New York Times Magazine, and The Atlantic Monthly. He says
"Indian cosmologists, the first to estimate the age of the earth at more than 4 billion years. They came closest to modern ideas of atomism, quantum physics, and other current theories. India developed very early, enduring atomist theories of matter. Possibly Greek atomistic thought was influenced by India, via the Persian civilization."
The cycle of creation and destruction continues forever, manifested in the Hindu deity Shiva, Lord of the Dance, who holds the drum that sounds the universe¡¯s creation in his right hand and the flame that, billions of years later, will destroy the universe in his left. Meanwhile Brahma is but one of untold numbers of other gods dreaming their own universes.
The 8.64 billion years that mark a full day-and-night cycle in Brahma¡¯s life is about half the modern estimate for the age of the universe. The ancient Hindus believed that each Brahma day and each Brahma night lasted a kalpa, 4.32 billion years, with 72,000 kalpas equaling a Brahma century, 311,040 billion years in all. That the Hindus could conceive of the universe in terms of billions.
The similarities between Indian and modern cosmology do not seem accidental. Perhaps ideas of creation from nothing, or alternating cycles of creation and destruction are hardwired in the human psyche. Certainly Shiva¡¯s percussive drumbeat suggests the sudden energetic impulse that could have propelled the big bang. And if, as some theorists have proposed, the big bang is merely the prelude to the big crunch and the universe is caught in an infinite cycle of expansion and contraction, then ancient Indian cosmology is clearly cutting edge compared to the one-directional vision of the big bang. The infinite number of Hindu universes is currently called the many world hypothesis, which is no less undocumentable nor unthinkable.
(source: Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - By Dick Teresi p. 159 and 174 -212). For more refer to chapter Advanced Concepts).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:46 AM
Count Maurice Maeterlinck (1862-1949) was a Belgian writer of poetry, a wide variety of essays. He won the 1911 Nobel Prize for literature. In his book Mountain Paths, says:
"he falls back upon the earliest and greatest of Revelations, those of the Sacred Books of India with a Cosmogony which no European conception has ever surpassed."
(source: Mountain Paths - By Maurice Maeterlinck).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 03:48 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 06:55 AM
Swami Kriyananada (J. Donald Walters) World renowned as a singer, composer, and lecturer, founder of the Ananda Village is perhaps the most successful intentional community in the world writes:
"Hindu cosmography, for example born in hoary antiquity, strikes one in certain ways as surprisingly modern. India has never limited its conception of time to a few crowded millennia. Thousands of years ago India's sages computed the earth's age at a little over two billion years, our present era being what is called the seventh Manuvantra. This is a staggering claim. Consider how much scientific evidence has been needed in the West before men could even imagine so enormous a time scale."
(source: Crises in Modern Thought: The Crises of Reason - By Swami Kriyananda (J. Donald Walters) vol. 1 p - 94).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 06:55 AM
Huston Smith ( ? ) born in China to Methodist missionaries, a philosopher, most eloquent writer, world-famous religion scholar who practices Hatha Yoga. He has said in Hinduism:
¡°The invisible excludes nothing, the invisible that excludes nothing is the infinite ¨C the soul of India is the infinite.¡±
¡°Philosophers tell us that the Indians were the first ones to conceive of a true infinite from which nothing is excluded. The West shied away from this notion. The West likes form, boundaries that distinguish and demarcate. The trouble is that boundaries also imprison ¨C they restrict and confine.¡±
¡°India saw this clearly and turned her face to that which has no boundary or whatever.¡± ¡°India anchored her soul in the infinite seeing the things of the world as masks of the infinite assumes ¨C there can be no end to these masks, of course. If they express a true infinity.¡± And It is here that India¡¯s mind boggling variety links up to her infinite soul.¡±
¡°India includes so much because her soul being infinite excludes nothing.¡± It goes without saying that the universe that India saw emerging from the infinite was stupendous.¡±
While the West was still thinking, perhaps, of 6,000 years old universe ¨C India was already envisioning ages and eons and galaxies as numerous as the sands of the Ganges. The Universe so vast that modern astronomy slips into its folds without a ripple.¡±
(source: The Mystic's Journey - India and the Infinite: The Soul of a People ¨C By Huston Smith).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 06:57 AM
Nancy Wilson Ross (1901 -1986) made her first trip to Japan, China, Korea and India in 1939. She was the author of several books including The World of Zen and Time's Left Corner. Miss Ross lectured on Zen Buddhism at the Jungian Institute in Zurich. She served on the board of the Asia Society of New York which was founded by John D. Rockefeller III since its founding in 1956 and was on the governing board of the India Council. In private life she was known as Mrs. Stanley Young.
She has written:
"Anachronistic as this labyrinthine mythology may appear to the foreign mind, many of India¡¯s ancient theories about the universe are startlingly modern in scope and worthy of a people who are credited with the invention of the zero, as well as algebra and its application of astronomy and geometry; a people who so carefully observed the heavens that, in the opinion of Monier-Williams, they determined the moon¡¯s synodical revolution much more correctly than the Greeks."
" Many hundreds of years before those great European pioneers, Galileo and Copernicus, had to pay heavy prices in ridicule and excommunication for their daring theories, a section of the Vedas known as the Brahmanas contained this astounding statement:
¡°The sun never sets or rises. When people think the sun is setting, he only changes about after reaching the end of the day and makes night below and day to what is on the other side. Then, when people think he rises in the morning, he only shifts himself about after reaching the end of the day night, and makes day below and night to what is on the other side. In truth, he does not see at all.¡±
"The Indians, whose theory of time, is not linear like ours ¨C that is, not proceeding consecutively from past to present to future ¨C have always been able to accept, seemingly without anxiety, the notion of an alternately expanding and contracting universe, an idea recently advanced by certain Western scientists. In Hindu cosmology, immutable Brahman, at fixed intervals, draws back into his beginningless, endless Being the whole substance of the living world. There then takes place the long ¡°sleep¡± of Brahaman from which, in course of countless aeons, there is an awakening, and another universe or ¡°dream¡± emerges. "
"This notion of the sleeping and waking, or contracting and expanding, of the Life Force, so long a part of Hindu cosmology, has recently been expressed in relevant terms in an article written for a British scientific journal by Professor Fred Hoyle, Britain¡¯s foremost astronomer. "
Lord Vishnu with Goddess Lakshmi on a coiled Cosmic couch.
Lord Vishnu is said to rest in the coils of Ananta, the great serpent of Infinity, while he waits for the universe to recreate itself.
(For more refer to chapter on Greater India: Suvarnabhumi and Sacred Angkor).
***
"Plainly, contemporary Western science¡¯s description of an astronomical universe of such vast magnitude that distances must be measured in terms as abstract as light-years is not new to Hinduism whose wise men, millennia ago, came up with the term kalpa to signify the inconceivable duration of the period elapsing between the beginning and end of a world system.
It is clear that Indian religious cosmology is sharply at variance with that inherited by Western peoples from the Semites. On the highest level, when stripped of mythological embroidery, Hinduism¡¯s conceptions of space, time and multiple universes approximate in range and abstraction the most advanced scientific thought.
(source: Three Ways of Asian Wisdom ¨C By Nancy Wilson Ross p. 64 - 67 and 74 - 76).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:55 AM
"India is the world's most ancient civilization. Nowhere on earth can you find such a rich and multi-layered tradition that has remained unbroken and largely unchanged for at least five thousand years. Bowing low before the onslaught of armies, and elements, India has survived every invasion, every natural disaster, every mortal disease and epidemic, the double helix of her genetic code transmitting its unmistakable imprint down five millennia to no less than a billion modern bearers. Indians have demonstrated greater cultural stamina than any other people on earth. The essential basis of Indian culture is Religion in the widest and most general sense of the world. An intuitive conviction that the Divine is immanent in everything permeated every phase of life," says Stanley Wolpert.
Indic civilization has enriched every art and science known to man. Thanks to India, we reckon from zero to ten with misnamed "Arabic" numerals (Hindsaa - in Arabic means from India), and use a decimal system without which our modern computer age would hardly have been possible.
Science and philosophy were both highly developed disciplines in ancient India. However, because Indian philosophic thought was considerably more mature and found particular favor amongst intellectuals, the traditions persists that any early scientific contribution came solely from the West, Greece in particular. Because of this erroneous belief, which is perpetuated by a wide variety of scholars, it is necessary to briefly examine the history of Indian scientific thought. From the very earliest times, India had made its contribution to the texture of Western thought and living. Michael Edwardes, author of British India, writes that throughout the literatures of Europe, tales of Indian origin can be discovered. European mathematics - and, through them, the full range of European technical achievement ¨C could hardly have existed without Indian numerals. But until the beginning of European colonization in Asia, India¡¯s contribution was usually filtered through other cultures.
"Many of the advances in the sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India centuries ago." - Grant Duff British Historian of India. Dr. Vincent Smith has remarked, "India suffers today, in the estimation of the world, more through the world's ignorance of the achievements of the heroes of Indian history than through the absence or insignificance of such achievement."
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:56 AM
Introduction to Hindu Culture
According to American Historian Will Durant The Story of Civilizations - Our Oriental Heritage ISBN: 1567310125 1937 p.391-396:
"From the time of Megasthenes, who described India to Greece ca 302 B.C., down to the eighteenth century, India was all a marvel and a mystery to Europe. Marco Polo (1254-1323) pictured its western fringe vaguely, Columbus blundered upon America in trying to reach it, Vasco da Gama sailed around Africa to rediscover it, and merchants spoke rapaciously of "the wealth of the Indies."
" It is true that even across the Himalayan barrier India has sent to us such questionable gifts as grammar and logic, philosophy and fables, hypnotism and chess, and above all our numerals and our decimal system. But these are not the essence of her spirit; they are trifles compared to what we may learn from her in the future. As invention, industry, and trade bind the continents more closely, and shall absorb, even in enmity, some of its ways and thoughts."
"The indications are that Mohenjadaro was at its height when Cheops built the first great pyramid; that it had commercial, religious and artistic connections to Sumeria and Babylonia...as Sir John Marshall believes, Mohenjadaro represents the oldest of all civilizations known."
The medieval Arab scholar Sa'id Ibn Ahmad al-Andalusi (1029-1070) wrote in his Tabaqat al-'umam, one of the earliest books on history of sciences:
"The first nation to have cultivated science is India. ... India is known for the wisdom of its people. Over many centuries, all the kings of the past have recognized the ability of the Indians in all the branches of knowledge... The kings of China have stated that the kings of the world are five in number and all the people of the world are their subjects. They mentioned the king of China, the king of India, the king of the Turks, the king of the Persians, and the king of the Romans... They referred to the king of India as the "king of wisdom" because of the Indians' careful treatment of ulum (sciences) and all the branches of knowledge. ... The Indians, known to all nations for many centuries, are the metal (essence) of wisdom, the source of fairness and objectivity. They are people of sublime pensiveness, universal apologues, and useful and rare inventions. ... To their credit the Indians have made great strides in the study of numbers and of geometry. They have acquired immense information and reached the zenith in their knowledge of the movements of the stars (astronomy).... After all that they have surpassed all other peoples in their knowledge of medical sciences.."
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Sir William Wilson Hunter author of the book, The Indian Empire, said India," has even contributed to modern medical science by the discovery of various chemicals and by teaching you how to reform misshapen ears and noses. Even more it has done in mathematics, for algebra, geometry, astronomy, and the triumph of modern science -- mixed mathematics -- were all invented in India, just so much as the ten numerals, the very cornerstone of all present civilization, were discovered in India, and are in reality, Sanskrit words."
Beginning with the earliest known Indian civilization, the Indus Valley, with its pottery wheel, cotton textiles, Indus script, and two wheeled carts, there is a good deal of material and texts to work from. By the beginning of the third millennium B.C. in India, as in China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, scientific development was well advanced. Excavations carried on at the sites of the Indus civilization have revealed remnants of an ancient civilization unsurpassed in civil engineering accomplishments, particularly baths and drainage. Whilst much is known of the hygienic measures of the period, little is known of the scientific knowledge upon which it was based. From the town Planning and Great Baths of Indus Valley it is evidence in the neat arrangement of the major buildings contained in the citadel, including the placement of a large granary and water tank or bath at right angles to one another. The lower city, which was tightly packed with residential units, was also constructed on a grid pattern consisting of a number of blocks separated by major cross streets. Baked-brick houses faced the street, and domestic life was centered around an enclosed courtyard. The cities had an elaborate public drainage system, Sanitation was provided through an extensive system of covered drains running the length of the main streets and connected by chutes with most residences. In the valley of the Indus River of India, the world's oldest civilization had developed its own system of mathematics.
This civilization is known for its well planned cities, brick built houses, excellent drainage system and water storage tanks. Benjamin Rowland (1904-1972) author of Art and Architecture of India wrote: "Indeed it could be said that the population of the Indus cities lived more comfortably than did their contemporaries in the crowded and ill-built metropolises elsewhere. People were literate and had their own script. Dance and music formed essential part of their daily life."
They had wide main streets and were magnificently laid out in grid form, reflecting careful town planning. They had sewers, municipal water systems, public baths, and well-fortified citadels. The private houses were well built, of fine solid baked bricks which have not crumbled over the centuries. Many of them were two stories high, and had seat latrines and chutes for refuse. Homes were built around courtyards. The people of the Indus Valley civilization had an advanced technology. They knew how to make cotton cloth and copper and bronze castings and forgings. Some of their art objects have a wonderful simple realism. The torso of one small dancing figure is so unbelievably alive that one can almost feel the easy muscles at work under the smooth skin.
(source: India: A World in Transition - By Beatrice Pitney Lamb p. 20).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-21 06:12 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:01 AM
"Mohenjo-daro had some of the most advanced toilets and sewers, with lavatories built into the outer walls of houses. There were ¡°Western-style¡± toilets made from bricks with wooden seats on top. They had vertical chutes, through which waste fell into street drains or cesspits. Sir Mortimer Wheeler, the director-general of archaeology in India from 1944 to 1948, wrote: ¡°The high quality of the sanitary arrangements could well be envied in many parts of the world today.¡±
Nearly all of the hundreds of houses excavated had their own bathing rooms. Generally located on the ground floor, the bath was made of brick, sometimes with a surrounding curb to sit on. The water drained away through a hole in the floor, down chutes or pottery pipes in the walls, into the municipal drainage system. Even the fastidious Egyptians rarely had special bathrooms."
The Indian architects designed sewage disposal systems on a large scale, building networks of brick effluent drains following the lines of the streets. The drains were seven to ten feet wide, cut at two feet below ground level with U shaped bottoms lined with loose brick easily taken up for cleaning. At the intersection of two drains, the sewage planners installed cesspools with steps leading down into them, for periodic cleaning. By 2700 B.C. these cities had standardized earthenware plumbing pipes with broad flanges for easy joining with asphalt to stop leaks."
The Harappans employed a variety of plumb bobs that reveal a system of weight based on a decimal scale. For example, a basic Harappan plumb bob weighs 27.584 grams. If we assign that a value of 1, other weights scale in at 0.5, .1., 2, .5, 2, 5, 10, 20 50, 100, 200, and 500. Archaeologists have found a ¡°ruler¡± made of shell lines drawn 6.7 millimeters apart with a high degree of accuracy. Two of the lines are distinguished by circles and are separated by 33.5 millimeters or 1.32 inches. This distance is the so-called Indus inch.
Harappan bricks contain no straw or binding material and are still in usable shape after five thousand years. Most interesting are their dimensions: while found in fifteen different sizes, their length, width, and thickness are always in the ration of 4:2:1.
(source: Lost Discoveries - Dick Teresi p. 351-352 and 59 - 62).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:03 AM
In ancient India, as in Greece, there was much speculative thought about astronomy, mathematics, physics, and biology. But mathematics and mysticism were inextricably mixed in early Greek thought, and Greek belief in magic, divination and oracles was perhaps more pronounced than its counterpart in India.
It is therefore untrue to assert, as recent European writers particularly have done, that Greece was the home of pure science.
Both India and Greece, whilst having their own traditions, had direct and indirect effects on each other in science as they did in philosophy. In fact, long before the Greeks, the Indians had learned to employ the dialectic method to grasp empirical and transcendental truths, although in India, more perhaps than in ancient Greece or the modern West, reason and truth, logic and mysticism, the visible and invisible, have always been regarded as inseparable. The practical application of science to human affairs, was as poor in India as it was in any other ancient society. In fact, this was not achieved until the eighteenth century, until then science and technology developed separately. When it did as in the case of Galileo Galilei, who was the first to employ the modern scientific method in its fullness, he incurred the wrath of the Church and was incarcerated by the Inquisition at the advanced age of seventy. There is hardly any parallel in India where a difference in interpretation either in metaphysics or scientific thought was so unkindly suppressed.
The spirit of scientific enquiry and a rigorous correlation of cause and effect in explaining natural phenomenon were particularly evident in ancient India. The connection between Indian philosophy and medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and technology is, strangely enough seldom realized much less recognized.
Ancient Indians "measured the land, divided the year, mapped out the heavens, traced the course of the sun and the planets through the zodiacal belt, analyzed the constitution of matter, and studied the nature of birds and beasts, plants and seeds." Whilst in Western civilizations the interest has been increasingly focused on single sciences, in the Indian world the ontological viewpoint has been generally preferred, and it would appear that "in India, through all periods, the special sciences are rooted in and developed on the underlying cosmic concepts and presuppositions. This universal vision in India has never been lost.
India's contribution to the sciences of mathematics and medicine have been unique. In other sciences, especially linguistics, metallurgy, and chemistry, Indians made trail-blazing discoveries.
(source: An Introduction to India - By Stanley Wolpert p. 192).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 08:05 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:06 AM
The Vedic Shulba Sutras (fifth to eighth century B.C. E.) meaning "codes of the rope," show that the earliest geometrical and mathematical investigations among the Indians arose from certain requirements of their religious rituals. When the poetic vision of the Vedic seers was externalized in symbols, rituals requiring altars and precise measurement became manifest, providing a means to the attainment of the unmanifest world of consciousness. "Shulba Sutras" is the name given to those portions or supplements of the Kalpasutras, which deal with the measurement and construction of the different altars or arenas for religious rites. The word Shulba refers to the ropes used to make these measurements. Although Vedic mathematicians are known primarily for their computational genius in arithmetic and algebra, the basis and inspiration for the whole of Indian mathematics is geometry. Evidence of geometrical drawing instruments from as early as 2500 B.C.E. has been found in the Indus Valley.
The beginnings of algebra can be traced to the constructional geometry of the Vedic priests, which are preserved in the Shulba Sutras. Exact measurements, orientations, and different geometrical shapes for the altars and arenas used for the religious functions (yajnas), which occupy an important part of the Vedic religious culture, are described in the Shulba Sutras. Many of these calculations employ the geometrical formula known as the Pythagorean theorem.
This theorem (c. 540 B.C.E.), equating the square of the hypotenuse of a right angle triangle with the sum of the squares of the other two sides, was utilized in the earliest Shulba Sutra (the Baudhayana) prior to the eighth century B.C.E. Thus, widespread use of this famous mathematical theorem in India several centuries before its being popularized by Pythagoras has been documented. The exact wording of the theorem as presented in the Sulba Sutras is: "The diagonal chord of the rectangle makes both the squares that the horizontal and vertical sides make separately." The proof of this fundamentally important theorem is well known from Euclid's time until the present for its excessively tedious and cumbersome nature; yet the Vedas present five different extremely simple proofs for this theorem.
One historian, Joseph Needham, has stated, "Future research on the history of science and technology in Asia will in fact reveal that the achievements of these peoples contribute far more in all pre-Renaissance periods to the development of world science than has yet been realized."
Meticulous planning and architectural brilliance in the layout of the city are the established and striking features of the Harappan civilisation.
Recent excavations at the small township of Dholavira, in Kutch, Gujarat, have presented to the world some of the oldest stadiums and sign board.
One of the stadiums is huge. The multipurpose structure, with terraced seats for spectators, around 800 feet in length (around 283 metres) can accommodate as many as 10,000 persons. The other stadium is much smaller in size.
The dimensions of the town of Dholavira (777.1 metres in length and 668.7 meters in width) establishes that the Harappans had great knowledge of trigonometry. They were also mathematical experts as all the dimensions at the site are based on squares and cubes,
(source: Oldest Harappan signboard at Kutch township - timesofindia.com).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:08 AM
Ancient Indians already operated with a time span of astronomical proportions long before the earliest signs of natural science in ancient Greece. It is undeniable that ancient Indian texts present astonishingly exact scientific calculations even by today's latest scientific standards, such as the speed of light, exact size of the smallest particles and the age of the universe.
The Surya Siddhanta, a textbook on astronomy of ancient India - last compiled in 1000 BC, believed by Hindus to be handed down from 3000 BC by aid of complex mnemonic recital methods still known today - computed the earth's diameter to be 7,840 miles, the distance earth - moon as 253,000 miles. These compare to modern measurements resp. as 7,926.7 miles and 252,710 miles for max. dist. moon-earth.
Manu's texts in Sanskrit propounded evolution thousands of years before Lamarck & Darwin. "The first germ of life was developed by water and heat. Man will traverse the universe, gradually ascending and passing through the rocks, the plants, the worms, insects, fish, serpents, tortoises, wild animals, cattle, and higher animals. These are the transformations declared, from the plant to Brahma, which have to take place in the world."
Brihath Sathaka operates with divisions of the time of one day into:- 60 kalas or ghatika - 24 mins each. Subdivided into 60 vikala (24 secs.each) 60 para then into tatpara, then into vitatpara then into ima then into kasha.... the smallest unit, equal to approx. o.ooooooo3 of a second (one 300 millionth). This smallest unit (3 X 10 -8 second) is surprisingly close to the life-spans of certain mesons and hyperons, according to some Western physicist who was interviewed on the BBC World Service in the early 1990s.
The 14th century 'Rigveda of the Sun' (dated by manuscript age only), says that the sun covers 2,202 yoganas in half a mimesa - which calculates as 300,000 metres a second, fairly exactly the speed of light.
(source: Science, the Critical mind and Dissent - By Robert C Priddy).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:08 AM
Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire (1694-1774) France's greatest writers and philosophers, was a theist, and a bitter critic of the Church said :
" It is very important to note that some 2,500 years ago at the least Pythagoras went from Samos to the Ganges to learn geometry...But he would certainly not have undertaken such a strange journey had the reputation of the Brahmans' science not been been long established in Europe....We have already acknowledged that arithmetic, geometry, astronomy were taught among the Brahmans. From time immemorial they have known the precession of the equinoxes and were in their calculation far closer to the real figure than the Greeks who came much later. Mr. Le Gentil (a French astronomer who spent several years in India) has with admiration acknowledged the Brahmans' science, as well as the immensity of time these Indians must have needed to reach a knowledge of which even the Chinese never had any notion, and which was unknown to Egypt and to Chaldea, the teacher of Egypt."
(source: Fragments historiques sur l'linde - By Voltaire p. 444 - 445.).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 08:09 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:11 AM
Beginning of Indian Scientific Thought
The beginning of Indian scientific thought are traced to the same source as those of Indian metaphysics and religion, the Rig Veda. The Vedas, being essentially works of poetic imagination, cannot be expected to contain much spirit of scientific inquiry, yet there are remarkable flashes of intuitive conjecture and reason.
They explain the nature of the universe, of life, while admitting that Creation itself is the one unknowable mystery.
To the Vedic sages, creation indicated that point before which there was no Creator, the line between indefinable nothingness and something delineated by attributes and function, at least. Like the moment before the Big Bang Theory. These concepts preoccupy high wisdom, the Truth far removed from mere religion.
Indeed, in one of the most remarkable of the Vedic hymns - In the Hymn of Creation (Rig Veda 10.129.3) a searching inquiry as to the origin of the world is made; it is certainly the earliest known record of philosophic doubt.
" There was not non-existent nor existent;
There was no realm of air, no sky beyond it.
What covered it, and where? and what gave shelter?
Was water there, unfathomed depth
of water?
Yet the Vedas go further, being philosophy, or really spiritual sciences, rather than myth. The hymn goes to say that in the beginning there was neither death nor immortality, nor day nor night. All that existed was void and formless. Then arose, desire, the primal seed and germ of spirit. But,
Who verily knows and
who can declare it,
Whence it was born and
Whence comes this creation?
The gods are later than this
world's production
Who knows, then, whence it
first came into being?
Vedas are the most sophisticated, most profoundly beautiful, and most complete presentations of what Aldous Huxley termed the ¡°perennial philosophy¡± that is at the core of all religions. In modern academia, of course, there is not supposed to be any ¡°ancient wisdom¡±. In this hymn, which contains the essence of monism, can be seen a representation of the most advanced theory of creation. The germ of free speculation and skepticism were already present in the Rig Veda.
(source: The Empire of the Soul: Some Journeys into India - By Paul William Roberts published by Riverhead Books ASIN: 1573226351 p 300-301).
The statue of Nataraja (dance pose of Lord Shiva) is a well known example for the artistic, scientific and philosophical significance of Hinduism.
Freedom was born in India. Doubt, the mother of freedom, was born with the Rig Veda, the most sacred scripture of the Hindus which has the following:
What are words, and what are mortal thoughts!
Who is there who truly knows and who can say,|
Whence this unfathomed world
And from what cause!
Freedom of the mind created the wondrous world of the intellect ¡ª the world of Hindu rishis, philosophers, poets and dramatists. It was the freedom of the mind and freedom of the senses which led to India¡¯s diversity and contributed to the richness of its civilization. No other civilization, not even that of the Greeks, could have enjoyed the freedom that we had. We have to remember, Socrates was forced to drink hemlock! The Inquisition burnt the Christian apostates at the stake and Islam beheaded dissenters.
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 08:13 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:15 AM
Concept of Time
"After a cycle of universal dissolution, the Supreme Being decides to recreate the cosmos so that we souls can experience worlds of shape and solidity. Very subtle atoms begin to combine, eventually generating a cosmic wind that blows heavier and heavier atoms together. Souls depending on their karma earned in previous world systems, spontaneously draw to themselves atoms that coalesce into an appropriate body." - The Prashasta Pada.
***
Grandiose time scales
Hinduism¡¯s understanding of time is as grandiose as time itself. While most cultures base their cosmologies on familiar units such as few hundreds or thousands of years, the Hindu concept of time embraces billions and trillions of years. The Puranas describe time units from the infinitesimal truti, lasting 1/1,000,0000 of a second to a mahamantavara of 311 trillion years. Hindu sages describe time as cyclic, an endless procession of creation, preservation and dissolution. Scientists such as Carl Sagan have expressed amazement at the accuracy of space and time descriptions given by the ancient rishis and saints, who fathomed the secrets of the universe through their mystically awakened senses.
(source: Hinduism Today April/May/June 2007 p. 14).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:16 AM
As in modern physics, Hindu cosmology envisaged the universe as having a cyclical nature. The end of each kalpa brought about by Shiva's dance is also the beginning of the next. Rebirth follows destruction.
wpe32.jpg (3455 bytes)The transcendence of time is the aim of every Indian spiritual tradition. Time is often presented as an eternal wheel that binds the soul to a mortal existence of ignorance and suffering. "Release" from time's fateful wheel is termed moksha, and an advanced ascetic may be called kala-attita (' he who has transcended time').
Hindus believe that the universe is without a beginning (anadi= beginning-less) or an end (ananta = end-less). Rather the universe is projected in cycles.
Time immemorial is measured in cycles called Kalpas. A Kalpa is a day and night for Brahma, the Lord of Creation. After each Kalpa, there is another Kalpa. Each Kalpa is composed of 1,000 Maha Yugas.
A Kalpa is thus equal to 4.32 billion human years. Kirtha Yuga or Satya yuga (golden or truth age) is 1,728,000 years; Treta yuga is 1,296,000 years; Dvapara yuga is 864,000 years; and Kali Yuga is 432,000 years. Total duration of the four yugas is called a kalpa. At the end of kalyuga the universe is dissolved by pralaya (cosmic deluge ) and another cycle begins. Each cycle of creation lasts one kalpa, that is 12,000,000 human years ( or 12,000 Brahma years).
One Maha Yuga is 4,32 million years.
Krita or Satya (golden age) 1,728,000 years
Treta (silver age) 1,296,000 years
Dvapara (copper age) 864,000 years
Kali (iron age) 432,000 years
A Brahma, or Lord of Creation, lives for one hundred Brahma years (each of made up of 360 Brahma days). After that he dies. So a Brahma lives for 36,000 Kalpas, or 36,000 x 2,000 x 4,30,000 human years ¨C i.e., a Brahma lives for 311.4 trillion human years. After the death of each Brahma, there is a Mahapralaya or Cosmic deluge, when all the universe is destroyed. Then a new Brahma appears and creation starts all over again.
(source: Am I a Hindu - by Ed Viswanathan p. 292 - 293).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 08:21 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:22 AM
Time in Hindu mythology is conceived as a wheel turning through vast cycles of creation and destruction (pralaya), known as kalpa. In the words of famous writer, Joseph Campbell:
"The Hindus with their grandiose Kalpas and their ideas of the divine power which is beyond all human category (male or female). Not so alien to the imagery of modern science that it could not have been put to acceptable use."
According to Guy Sorman, visiting scholar at Hoover Institution at Stanford and the leader of new liberalism in France:
"Temporal notions in Europe were overturned by an India rooted in eternity. The Bible had been the yardstick for measuring time, but the infinitely vast time cycles of India suggested that the world was much older than anything the Bible spoke of. It seem as if the Indian mind was better prepared for the chronological mutations of Darwinian evolution and astrophysics."
(source: The Genius of India - By Guy Sorman ('Le Genie de l'Inde') Macmillan India Ltd. 2001. ISBN 0333 93600 0 p. 195).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:22 AM
Huston Smith a philosopher, most eloquent writer, world-famous religion scholar who practices Hatha Yoga. Has taught at MIT and is currently visiting professor at Univ. of California at Berkley. Smith has also produced PBS series. He has written various books, The World's Religions, "Science and Human Responsibility", and "The Religions of Man" says:
¡°Philosophers tell us that the Indians were the first ones to conceive of a true infinite from which nothing is excluded. The West shied away from this notion. The West likes form, boundaries that distinguish and demarcate. The trouble is that boundaries also imprison ¨C they restrict and confine.¡±
¡°India saw this clearly and turned her face to that which has no boundary or whatever.¡± ¡°India anchored her soul in the infinite seeing the things of the world as masks of the infinite assumes ¨C there can be no end to these masks, of course. If they express a true infinity.¡± And It is here that India¡¯s mind boggling variety links up to her infinite soul.¡±
¡°India includes so much because her soul being infinite excludes nothing.¡± It goes without saying that the universe that India saw emerging from the infinite was stupendous.¡±
While the West was still thinking, perhaps, of 6,000 years old universe ¨C India was already envisioning ages and eons and galaxies as numerous as the sands of the Ganges. The Universe so vast that modern astronomy slips into its folds without a ripple.¡±
(source: The Mystic's Journey - India and the Infinite: The Soul of a People ¨C By Huston Smith).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:24 AM
Dr. Carl Sagan in his book Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science, remarks:
"Immanuel Velikovsky (the author of Earth in Upheaval) in his book Worlds in Collision, notes that the idea of four ancient ages terminated by catastrophe is common to Indian as well as to Western sacred writing.
However, in the Bhagavad Gita and in the Vedas, widely divergent numbers of such ages, including an infinity of them, are given; but, more interesting, the duration of the ages between major catastrophes is specified as billions of years. .. "
"The idea that scientists or theologians, with our present still puny understanding of this vast and awesome cosmos, can comprehend the origins of the universe is only a little less silly than the idea that Mesopotamian astronomers of 3,000 years ago ¨C from whom the ancient Hebrews borrowed, during the Babylonian captivity, the cosmological accounts in the first chapter of Genesis ¨C could have understood the origins of the universe. We simply do not know.
The Hindu holy book, the Rig Veda (X:129), has a much more realistic view of the matter:
¡°Who knows for certain? Who shall here declare it?
Whence was it born, whence came creation?
The gods are later than this world¡¯s formation;
Who then can know the origins of the world?
None knows whence creation arose;
And whether he has or has not made it;
He who surveys it from the lofty skies,
Only he knows- or perhaps he knows not."
(source: Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science - By Carl Sagan p. 106 - 137).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:26 AM
The theory of animal life and particularly of man was correctly understood by the ancient thinkers. The Brihat Vishnu Purana states that "the aquatic life precedes the monkey life" and that "the monkey life is the precursor of the human life." The same theory was explained in an interesting way by the dashavatara (ten incarnations). But evolution, as everything else, was the manifestation of the supreme spirit (Atman) as is testified by Chandogya Upanishad.
(source: Ancient Indian History and Culture - By Chidambara Kulkarni Orient Longman Ltd. 1974. p.268).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:26 AM
Hinduism is the only religion that propounds the idea of life-cycles of the universe. It suggests that the universe undergoes an infinite number of deaths and rebirths. Hinduism, according to Carl Sagan, "... is the only religion in which the time scales correspond... to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of the Brahma, 8.64 billion years long, longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang"
Long before Aryabhata (6th century) came up with this awesome achievement, apparently there was a mythological angle to this as well -- it becomes clear when one looks at the following translation of Bhagavad Gita (part VIII, lines 16 and 17),
"All the planets of the universe, from the most evolved to the most base, are places of suffering, where birth and death takes place. But for the soul that reaches my Kingdom, O son of Kunti, there is no more reincarnation. One day of Brahma is worth a thousand of the ages [yuga] known to humankind; as is each night."
Thus each kalpa is worth one day in the life of Brahma, the God of creation. In other words, the four ages of the mahayuga must be repeated a thousand times to make a "day ot Brahma", a unit of time that is the equivalent of 4.32 billion human years, doubling which one gets 8.64 billion years for a Brahma day and night. This was later theorized (possibly independently) by Aryabhata in the 6th century. The cyclic nature of this analysis suggests a universe that is expanding to be followed by contraction... a cosmos without end. This, according to modern physicists is not an impossibility.
(source: Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient India).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:29 AM
In Hindu thought, interspersed between linear, time-limited existences lie timeless intervals of non-existence. The creation hymn of the Hindus, Nasadiya-sukta of Rig-Veda, affirms an absolute beginning of things and describes the origin of the universe as being beyond the concepts of existence and non-existence
¡°The Hindu ... pictured the universe as periodically expanding and contracting and gave the name Kalpa to the time span between the beginning and the end of one creation. The scale of this space or time is indeed staggering. It has taken more than two thousand years to come up again with a similar concept.¡±
Hindu culture had this unique vision of the infiniteness of time as well as the infinity of space. When modern astronomy deals with billion of years, Hindu creation concepts deal with trillions of years. Vedanta upholds the idea that creation is timeless, having no beginning in time. Each creation and dissolution follows in sequence. The whole cosmos exists in two states -- the unmanifested or undifferentiated state and the manifested or differentiated state.
(source: The Origin of the Universe - By K B N Sarma - sulekha.com).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:30 AM
Princeton University¡¯s Paul Steinhardt and Cambridge University¡¯s Neil Turok, have recently developed The Cyclical Model.
They have just fired their latest volley at that belief, saying there could be a timeless cycle of expansion and contraction. It¡¯s an idea as old as Hinduism, updated for the 21st century. The theorists acknowledge that their cyclic concept draws upon religious and scientific ideas going back for millennia ¡ª echoing the "oscillating universe" model that was in vogue in the 1930s, as well as the Hindu belief that the universe has no beginning or end, but follows a cosmic cycle of creation and dissolution.
(source: Questioning the Big Bang - msnbcnews.com).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:32 AM
John Bowle, categorically declares that Plato was influenced by Indian ideas.
(source: A New Outline of World History - By John Bowle p. 91).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:33 AM
Dick Teresi ( ? ) author and coauthor of several books about science and technology, including The God Particle. He is cofounder of Omni magazine and has written:
"The big bang is the biggest-budget universe ever, with mind-boggling numbers to dazzle us ¨C a technique pioneered by fifth-century A.D. Indian cosmologists, the first to estimate the age of the earth at more than 4 billion years. The cycle of creation and destruction continues forever, manifested in the Hindu deity Shiva, Lord of the Dance, who holds the drum that sounds the universe¡¯s creation in his right hand and the flame that, billions of years later, will destroy the universe in his left. Meanwhile Brahma is but one of untold numbers of other gods dreaming their own universes. The 8.64 billion years that mark a full day-and-night cycle in Brahma¡¯s life is about half the modern estimate for the age of the universe. The ancient Hindus believed that each Brahma day and each Brahma night lasted a kalpa, 4.32 billion years, with 72,000 kalpas equaling a Brahma century, 311,040 billion years in all. That the Hindus could conceive of the universe in terms of billions."
(source: Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - By Dick Teresi p. 159 and 174 -212).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:34 AM
The Hindus, according to Sir Monier-Williams, were Spinozists more than 2,000 years before the advent of Spinoza, and Darwinians many centuries before Darwin and Evolutionists many centuries before the doctrine of Evolution was accepted by scientists of the present age.
The French historian Louis Jacolliot says, "Here to mock are conceit, our apprehensions, and our despair, we may read what Manu said, perhaps 10,000 years before the birth of Christ about Evolution:
' The first germ of life was developed by water and heat.' (Book I, sloka 8,9 )
' Water ascends towards the sky in vapors; from the sun it descends in rain, from the rains are born the plants, and from the plants, animals.' (Book III, sloka 76).
(source: Philosophy of Hinduism - By T C Galav ISBN: 0964237709 p 17).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:35 AM
Sir John Woodroffe, (1865-1936) the well known scholar, Advocate-General of Bengal and sometime Legal Member of the Government of India. He served with competence for eighteen years and in 1915 officiated as Chief Justice. He has said:
"Ages before Lamarck and Darwin it was held in India that man has passed through 84 lakhs (8,400,000) of birth as plants, animals, as an "inferior species of man" and then as the ancestor of the developed type existing to-day.
"The theory was not, like modern doctrine of evolution, based wholly on observation and a scientific enquiry into fact but was a rather (as some other matters) an act of brilliant intuition in which observation may also have had some part."
(source: Is India Civilized: Essays on Indian Culture - By Sir John Woodroffe Publisher: Ganesh & Co. Publishers Date of Publication: 1922 p. 22).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:37 AM
Thus, in Hinduism, science and religion are not opposed fundamentally, as they often seem to be in the West, but are seen as parts of the same great search for truth and enlightenment that inspired the sages of Hinduism. Fundamental to Hindu concept of time and space is the notion that the external world is a product of the creative play of Maya (illusion).
"To the philosophers of India, however, Relativity is no new discovery, just as the concept of light years is no matter for astonishment to people used to thinking of time in millions of kalpas, (A kalpa is about 4,320,000 years). The fact that the wise men of India have not been concerned with technological applications of this knowledge arises from the circumstance that technology is but one of innumerable ways of applying it."
It is, indeed, a remarkable circumstance that when Western civilization discovers Relativity it applies it to the manufacture of atom-bombs, whereas Oriental civilization applies it to the development of new states of consciousness."
(source: Spiritual Practices of India - By Frederic Spiegelberg Introduction by Alan Watts p. 8-9).
Kapila Rishi
To the philosophers of India, however, Relativity is no new discovery, just as the concept of light years is no matter for astonishment to people used to thinking of time in millions of kalpas,
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 08:38 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:39 AM
The late scientist, Carl Sagan, asserts that the Dance of Nataraja (Tandava) signifies the cycle of evolution and destruction of the cosmic universe (Big Bang Theory). According to Carl Sagan, (1934-1996) astro-physicist, in his book Cosmos says:
"The Hindu religion is the only one of the world's great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond, to those of modern scientific cosmology.
"It is the clearest image of the activity of God which any art or religion can boast of." Modern physics has shown that the rhythm of creation and destruction is not only manifest in the turn of the seasons and in the birth and death of all living creatures, but also the very essence of inorganic matter.
For modern physicists, then, Shiva's dance is the dance of subatomic matter. Hundreds of years ago, Indian artist created visual images of dancing Shiva's in a beautiful series of bronzes. Today, physicist have used the most advanced technology to portray the pattern of the cosmic dance. Thus, the metaphor of the cosmic dance unifies, ancient religious art and modern physics.
"The Hindu religion is the only one of the world's great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond, to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang. And there are much longer time scales still."
(source: Cosmos - By Carl Sagan ISBN: 0375508325 p. 213 -214).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:40 AM
Fritjof Capra (1939 - ) Austrian-born famous theoretical high-energy physicist and ecologist wrote:
"Modern physics has thus revealed that every subatomic particle not only performs an energy dance, but also is an energy dance; a pulsating process of creation and destruction. The dance of Shiva is the dancing universe, the ceaseless flow of energy going through an infinite variety of patterns that melt into one another¡¯¡¯. For the modern physicists, then Shiva¡¯s dance is the dance of subatomic matter. As in Hindu mythology, it is a continual dance of creation and destruction involving the whole cosmos; the basis of all existence and of all natural phenomenon. Hundreds of years ago, Indian artists created visual images of dancing Shivas in a beautiful series of bronzes. In our times, physicists have used the most advanced technology to portray the patterns of the cosmic dance."
(source: The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism - By Fritjof Capra p. 241-245).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:42 AM
Nancy Wilson Ross (1901 -1986) made her first trip to Japan, China, Korea and India in 1939. She was the author of several books including The World of Zen and Time's Left Corner. Miss Ross lectured on Zen Buddhism at the Jungian Institute in Zurich. She served on the board of the Asia Society of New York which was founded by John D. Rockefeller III since its founding in 1956 and was on the governing board of the India Council. In private life she was known as Mrs. Stanley Young.
She has written:
"Anachronistic as this labyrinthine mythology may appear to the foreign mind, many of India¡¯s ancient theories about the universe are startlingly modern in scope and worthy of a people who are credited with the invention of the zero, as well as algebra and its application of astronomy and geometry; a people who so carefully observed the heavens that, in the opinion of Monier-Williams, they determined the moon¡¯s synodical revolution much more correctly than the Greeks."
" Many hundreds of years before those great European pioneers, Galileo and Copernicus, had to pay heavy prices in ridicule and excommunication for their daring theories, a section of the Vedas known as the Brahmanas contained this astounding statement:
¡°The sun never sets or rises. When people think the sun is setting, he only changes about after reaching the end of the day and makes night below and day to what is on the other side. Then, when people think he rises in the morning, he only shifts himself about after reaching the end of the day night, and makes day below and night to what is on the other side. In truth, he does not see at all.¡±
"The Indians, whose theory of time, is not linear like ours ¨C that is, not proceeding consecutively from past to present to future ¨C have always been able to accept, seemingly without anxiety, the notion of an alternately expanding and contracting universe, an idea recently advanced by certain Western scientists. In Hindu cosmology, immutable Brahman, at fixed intervals, draws back into his beginningless, endless Being the whole substance of the living world. There then takes place the long ¡°sleep¡± of Brahaman from which, in course of countless aeons, there is an awakening, and another universe or ¡°dream¡± emerges. "
"This notion of the sleeping and waking, or contracting and expanding, of the Life Force, so long a part of Hindu cosmology, has recently been expressed in relevant terms in an article written for a British scientific journal by Professor Fred Hoyle, Britain¡¯s foremost astronomer. "
"Plainly, contemporary Western science¡¯s description of an astronomical universe of such vast magnitude that distances must be measured in terms as abstract as light-years is not new to Hinduism whose wise men, millennia ago, came up with the term kalpa to signify the inconceivable duration of the period elapsing between the beginning and end of a world system.
"It is clear that Indian religious cosmology is sharply at variance with that inherited by Western peoples from the Semites. On the highest level, when stripped of mythological embroidery, Hinduism¡¯s conceptions of space, time and multiple universes approximate in range and abstraction the most advanced scientific thought. "
(source: Three Ways of Asian Wisdom ¨C By Nancy Wilson Ross p. 64 - 67 and 74 - 76).
Lord Vishnu sleeping on a coiled serpent. Chalukya Period. 6th century A.D. Relief in Sanctuary # 9, Aihole,
Lord Vishnu is said to rest in the coils of Ananta, the great serpent of Infinity, while he waits for the universe to recreate itself.
For more refer to chapter on Greater India: Suvarnabhumi and Sacred Angkor
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:45 AM
Dr. Heinrich Zimmer (1890-1943), the great German Indologist, a man of penetrating intellect, the keenest esthetic sensibility observed:
¡°In one of the Puranic accounts of the deeds of Vishnu in his Boar Incarnation or Avatar, occurs a casual reference to the cyclic recurrence of the great moments of myth. The Boar, carrying on his arm the goddess Earth whom he is in the act of rescuing from the depths of the sea, passingly remarks to her:
¡°Every time I carry you this way¡.¡±
For the Western mind, which believes in single, epoch-making, historical events (such as, for instance, the coming of Christ) this casual comment of the ageless god has a gently minimizing, annihilating effect."
(source: The Myth and Symbols in India Art and Civilization ¨C By Heinrich Zimmer p. 18 and 152 - 155 ).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:45 AM
Professor Arthur Holmes (1895-1965) geologist, professor at the University of Durham. He writes regarding the age of the earth in his great book, The Age of Earth (1913) as follows:
"Long before it became a scientific aspiration to estimate the age of the earth, many elaborate systems of the world chronology had been devised by the sages of antiquity. The most remarkable of these occult time-scales is that of the ancient Hindus, whose astonishing concept of the Earth's duration has been traced back to Manusmriti, a sacred book."
When the Hindu calculation of the present age of the earth and the expanding universe could make Professor Holmes so astonished, the precision with which the Hindu calculation regarding the age of the entire Universe was made would make any man spellbound.
(source: Hinduism and Scientific Quest - By T. R. R. Iyengar p. 20-21).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:47 AM
The Upanishads developed this spirit of inquiry, and traces of naturalistic and scientific thought in them are quite significant. The Samkhya system, which has been described as the ruling philosophy of pre-Buddhist India and an orthodox system having its roots in the Upanishads, is essentially rational, anti-theistic, and intellectual. According to Richard Garbe, it was in Samkhya doctrine that complete independence and freedom of the human mind was exhibited for the first time in history. Samkhya, probably the oldest Indian philosophical system, furnished the background for the Yoga system, and the early Buddhist biography Lalitavistara includes both Samkhya and Yoga in the curriculum of study for the young Buddha. Samkhya is generally ascribed to Sage Kapila and Yoga to Sage Patanjali. Ideas of natural selection, atomic polarity and evolution.
Like in other ancient civilizations, in Hindu India priests and scientists were often the same persons; the conflict between religion and reason is not the primitive condition but a contingent historical development in post-classical Europe, paralleled to an extent by the stagnation of Muslim culture from the 12th century onwards. The Sankya philosophy of Kapila, in short, is devoted entirely to the systematic, logical, and scientific explanation of the process of cosmic evolution from that primordial Prakriti, or eternal Energy. There is no ancient philosophy in the world which was not indebted to the sankhya system of Kapila. The idea of evolution which the ancient Greeks and neo-Platonists had can be traced back to the influence of this Sankhya school of thought.
(source: India and World Civilization - By D. P. Singhal - Chapter V - Naturalism and Science in Ancient India - p.153 - 188).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:47 AM
Professor Edward Washburn Hopkins (1857-1932) Indologist, Chair of Sanskrit Studies of Yale, says:
"Plato is full of Sankhyan thought, worked out by him, but taken from Pythagoras. Before the sixth century B.C. all the religious-philosophical idea of Pythagoras are current in India (L. Schroeder, Pythagoras). If there were but one or two of these cases, they might be set aside as accidental coincidences, but such coincidences are too numerous to be the result of change. "
And again he writes: "Neo-Platonism and Christian Gnosticism owe much to India. The Gnostic ideas in regard to a plurality of heavens and spiritual worlds go back directly to Hindu sources. Soul and light are one in the Sankhyan system, before they became so in Greece, and when they appear united in Greece it is by means of the thought which is borrowed from India. The famous three qualities of the Sankhyan reappear as the Gnostic 'three classes.'
(source: Religions of India - By Edward Washburn Hopkins p. 559-560).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:48 AM
Some sources even credit Pythagoras with having traveled as far as India in search of knowledge, which may explain some of the close parallels between Indian and Pythagorean philosophy and religion. These parallels include:
1. a belief in the transmigration of souls;
2. the theory of four elements constituting matter;
3. the reasons for not eating beans;
4. the structure of the religio-philosophical character of the Pythagorean fraternity, which resembled Buddhist monastic orders; and
5. the contents of the mystical speculations of the Pythagorean schools, which bear a striking resemblance of the Hindu Upanishads.
According to Greek tradition, Pythagoras, Thales, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus and others undertook journey to the East to study philosophy and science. By the time Ptolmaic Egypt and Rome¡¯s Eastern empire had established themselves just before the beginning of the Common era, Indian civilization was already well developed, having founded three great religions ¨C Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism ¨C and expressed in writing some subtle currents of religious thought and speculation as well as fundamental theories in science and medicine.
(source: The crest of the peacock: Non-European roots of Mathematics - By George Gheverghese Joseph p. 1 - 18). For more refer to chapter on India and Greece).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:49 AM
A 9th century Hindu scripture, The Mahapurana by Jinasena claims the something as modern as the following: (translation from [5])
"Some foolish men declare that a Creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill-advised, and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before creation?... How could God have made the world without any raw material? If you say He made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression... Know that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning and end. And it is based on principles."
(source: Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient India). (Refer to Visions of the End of the World - By Dr. Subhash Kak - sulekha.com).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:50 AM
Modern people divide the day into 24 hours, the hour - into 60 minutes, the minute - into 60 seconds. Ancient Hindus divided the day in 60 periods, lasting 24 minutes each, and so on and so forth. The shortest time period of ancient Hindus made up one-three-hundred-millionth of a second.
(source: Ancient nuclear blasts and levitating stones of Shivapur - By Alexander Pechersky - pravda.ru.com).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:51 AM
Speed of Light:
Sayana (c. 1315-1387) was a minister in the court of King Bukka I of the Vijayanagar Empire in South India; he was also a great Vedic scholar who wrote extensive commentaries on several ancient texts. In his commentary on the fourth verse of the hymn 1.50 of the Rig Veda on the sun, he says:
Tatha cha smaryate yojananam sahasre dve dve shate dve cha yogane ekena nimishardhena kramamana namo ¡®stu ta iti
Thus it is remembered: (O Sun), bow to you, you who travers 2,202 yojanas in half a minute.
The Puranas define 1 nimesha to be equal to 16/75 seconds. 1 yojana is about 9 miles. Substituting in Sayana¡¯s statement we get 186,000 per second.
Sayana¡¯s statement was printed in 1890 in the famous edition of Rig Veda edited by Max Muller, the German Sanskritist . He claimed to have used several three or four hundred year old manuscripts of Sayana¡¯s commentary, written much before the time of Romer. Further support for the genuineness of the figure in the ancient book comes from one of the earliest Puranas, the Vayu, conservatively dated to at least 1,500 years old. The Puranas speak of the creation and destruction of the universe in cycles of 8.64 billion years, that is quite close to currently accepted value regarding the time of the big bang.
(source: The Wishing Tree - By Subhash Kak p. 75 - 77 and Sayana's Astronomy - By Subhash Kak).
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Physics
In the realm of physics, remarkable contributions have been made by Indian scientists. Some hint at the theory may be contained in the views of Uddalaka Aruni, preserved in the Chandogya Upanishad. Uddalaka says: "matter was at first a chaotic mass, like the juices of various trees indiscriminately blended together in honey. In order to develop names-and-forms, to discriminate things from one another, or to set them in order, the universal spirit came not in its universal form but as the living, principle, and entered into Fire, Water and Earth. After separating their component but qualitatively distinct parts (dhatus), it made numerous new combinations of them. By propounding the theory of combination and separation of particles, Uddalaka anticipated the atomic theory of Kannada.'
Kanaada, the founder of the Vaisesika system of philosophy, expounded that the entire matter in this world consists of atoms as many in kind as the various elements. Kanaada's atom would then correspond to the modern atom. He said:
"The cause of creative motion is believed to be adrsta, unseen moral force which guides the destiny of souls according to their karma and requires them to be provided with properly equipped bodies and an appropriate objective world for the experience of pleasure and pain. It is due to the operation of this metempirical force that atoms start moving to get together in order that they may be integrated into countless varieties of things."
Some Jain thinkers went a step further. They thought that all atoms are the same kind and variety emerged because they entered into different combinations. Kanaada taught that light and heat are variations of the same reality.
Vacaspati interpreted light as composed of minute particles emitted by substances and striking the eyes. This is a clear anticipation of the corpuscular theory of light, which was proposed by Newton but rejected till the discovery of the proton.
Modern physics confirmed that the sun's rays travel in a curved way, but not in a straight line. Our ancestors told that the sun's chariot was drawn by seven horses tied by snakes. As the movements of the snakes are crooked and curved, so also the sun's ray. The phenomenon is described in a metaphysical poetic line bhujagana mita sapta turaga. The chapter on light says that there are seven colors in the white ray of the sun. Artharveda says that there are seven types of sun's rays, sapta surayasya rasmayah.
The law of gravitation discovered by Brahmagupta anticipated Newton by declaring "all things fall to the earth by law of nature; for it is the nature of the earth to attract and keep things."
(source: Hinduism and Scientific Quest - By T R. R. Iyengar p. 153-154 and History of Science and Technology in Ancient India - by Debiprasad Chattopadhya volume II p. 297-299). For more information refer to the chapter 'Advanced Concepts).
Kannada was an expounder of the law of causation and of the atomic theory. He classified all the objects of creation into nine elements, namely: earth, water, light, wind, ether, time, space, mind and soul. According to his theory every object of creation is made of atoms, which in turn are joined with each other to form molecules. His statement ushered in the Atomic theory for the first time in the world, early 2500 years before John Dalton. Kanaada has also described the dimension and motion of atoms and their chemical reactions with each other.
T. N. Colebrooke, has said: "Compared to the scientists of Europe, Kanaada and others Indian scientists were the global masters in this field."
(source: Calendar 2002 - VHP of America).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 08:55 AM ]
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Umasvati, who lived in the first century A.D. suggested that atoms of opposite qualities alone combined and the atoms attracted or repelled as they were heterogeneous or homogenous. Commenting on these theories, A. L Basham remarks: "Indian atomic theories were not of course, based on experiment, but on intuition and logic..."
Gravity was considered a peculiar cause of primary descent or falling...In the absence of counter-balancing cause, as adhesion, velocity or some act of volition, descent results from this quality. Thus a coconut is withheld from falling by adhesion of the foot-stalk, but this impediment ceasing on maturity of the fruit, it falls. The penetrative diffusion of liquid was explained by capillary motion and the conduction of water in pipes was said to be due to the pressure of air. They were familiar with an accurate method of calculating velocity which facilitated the measurement of the relative pitch of musical tones with great precision. They anticipated the Pythagorean law of vibration of stretched strings. viz. the number of vibrations varies inversely as the length of the string.
The believed that energy was indestructible and thus anticipated the law of conservation and energy. Heat and light were viewed as only different forms of the same essential substance. One of the scientists succeeded in suggesting a scientific explanation of the phenomenon of ebullition and rarefaction in evaporation. They were familiar with refraction and chemical effects of light rays, causes of translucency, opacity and shadows. They evolved the formula that the angle of incidence was equal to the angle of reflection.
They discovered that a magnet possessed the power of attracting iron. Bhoja, a writer of the eleventh century, therefore, suggested that iron should not be used in the construction of a ship to avoid the danger of being drawn into a magnetic field by magnetic rocks. They also discovered the mariner's compass centuries before its discovery in Europe. (for more information refer to chapters War in Ancient India and Seafaring in Ancient India). It was called matsya-yantra and consisted of an iron fish which floated in a vessel of oil and pointed at the North.
(source: Main Currents in Indian Culture - By S. Natarajan p. 68 - 69 Indo-Middle East Cultural Studies Hyderabad 1960).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:57 AM
The Indians came closest to modern ideas of atomism, quantum physics, and other current theories. India developed very early, enduring atomist theories of matter. Possibly Greek atomistic thought was influenced by India, via the Persian civilization. The Rig-Veda, is the first Indian literature to set down ideas resembling universal natural laws. Cosmic law is connected with cosmic light, with gods, and, later, specifically with Brahman." It was the Vedic Aryans... who gave the world some of the earliest philosophical texts on the makeup of matter and the theoretical underpinnings for the chemical makeup of minerals. Sanskrit Vedas from thousands of years before Christ implied that matter could not be created, and that the universe had created itself. Reflecting this, in his Vaiseshika philosophy, Kanada (600 B. C) claimed that elements could not be destroyed. Kanada's life is somewhat a mysterious, but his name is said to mean "one who eats particle or grain" likely referring to his theory that basic particles mix together as the building blocks for all matter. Two, three, four, or more of these elements would combine, just as we conceive of atoms doing. The Greeks would not stumble on this concept for another century."
(source: Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - By Dick Teresi p. 1 - 8 and 159 and 174 -239). For more on Dick Teresi refer to chapters Quotes301_320, GlimpsesVI and GlimpsesVII ).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 08:59 AM
Historian A. L. Basham has written:
"The atomic theories of ancient India are brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world..."
Further progress was made in knowing the qualities and functions of earth, water, heat, sound etc. Especially in sound the ancient Indians reached great heights very early. The octave was divided into 22 shrutis (quarter-tones) and their proportions were measured with great accuracy. Their love of accuracy and precision is testified by their tables of weights, and measures. The measurement of time was, for example, based on the unit of time taken by a wink (nimisha).
(source: Ancient Indian History and Culture - By Chidambara Kulkarni Orient Longman Ltd. 1974. p. 272).
J R Oppenheimer and Atom bomb in modern times
Only seven years after the first successful atom bomb blast in New Mexico, Dr. Oppenheimer of the Manhattan Project, who was familiar with ancient Sanskrit literature, was giving a lecture at Rochester University. During the question and answer period a student asked a question to which Oppenheimer gave a strangely qualified answer:
Student: Was the bomb exploded at Alamogordo during the Manhattan Project the first one to be detonated?
Dr. Oppenheimer: "Well -- yes. In modern times, of course.
Charles Berlitz goes on to quote a number of passages from the Mahabharata that describe the impact of a weapon that I suspect must be the brahmaastra, although he neither names the weapon nor cites those sections of the text from which his quotations are drawn (he lists Protap Chandra Roy's translation of 1889 in his bibliography):...a single projectile Charged with all the power of the Universe.
An incandescent column of smoke and flame As bright as ten thousand Suns Rose in all its splendor......it was an unknown weapon, An iron thunderbolt, A gigantic messenger of death, Which reduced to ashes. The Entire race of the Vrishnis and the Andhakas....the corpses were so burned As to be unrecognizable. Their hair and nails fell out; Pottery broke without apparent cause, And the birds turned white. After a few hours all foodstuffs were infected......To escape from this fire. The soldiers threw themselves in streams to wash themselves and their equipment...
One is reminded of the yet unknown final effect of a super-bomb when we read in the Ramayana of a projectile:
...So powerful that it could destroy
The earth in an instant -
A great soaring sound in smoke and flames...
And on it sits Death...
(source: Doomsday 1999 - By Charles Berlitz Doubleday ASIN: 038515982X p. 118-122). For more on Oppenheimer, refer to Quotes21_40 and GlimpsesX).
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Author: northwest Time: 2007-6-20 09:47 AM Subject: Bodhidharma - Indian Buddhist monk that establish Ch'an school
http://www.answers.com/topic/bodhidharma
Bodhidharma
(3rd-4th c. ce)
According to Ch'an and zen legends, Bodhidharma is the Indian monk and missionary who brought Ch'an to China. Legend portrays him as a south Indian prince who left the household life and, upon attaining enlightenment (bodhi), became the 28th in a series of patriarchs through which the Buddha's original enlightenment experience had been transmitted directly without the mediation of 'words and scriptures'. Upon bringing Ch'an to China, he became the first Chinese patriarch, and all subsequent Chinese Ch'an and Japanese Zen masters trace their master-disciple lineages back to him.
According to the legend, Bodhidharma arrived in Canton via the sea route in 526, and was invited to the court of Emperor Wu, founder of the Liang dynasty in the south. Expecting the master's praise of his temple-building and lavish support of the Sangha, the emperor received instead enigmatic responses and a brusque discounting of his activities. Bodhidharma then left for the north, reportedly crossing the Yangtze River on a reed, and arrived at the Shao-lin Temple. Finding the resident clergy weak and prone to the depredations of local bandits, he taught them exercises and self-defence, from which evolved the famous Shao-lin style of martial arts. He then sequestered himself in a cave for nine years and sat gazing at the wall. Once, enraged at his drowsiness, he ripped off his eyelids and threw them down to the ground, where they sprouted as tea plants. In addition, his legs are said to have withered away because of his constant sitting. (This is the origin of the Daruma doll, a Japanese toy shaped like an egg with a weighted bottom that springs upright again when knocked over. Its wide-open eyes and lack of legs derive from these stories of Bodhidharma.) Hui-k'o, the man who would become his disciple and the second patriarch, came to him to study during this period, but was unable to get Bodhidharma's attention. The latter looked up and received him only after the former cut off his arm and offered it. When Bodhidharma died at the age of 160, he was buried at the Shao-lin Temple, but the same day one of the temple's monks who was out travelling met him heading west holding up one of his sandals. When the monk returned, he recounted the story, whereupon the other clergy opened the tomb, and found only a single sandal inside.
Much of the above legend clearly is based on later stories, many of which serve to make polemical points in defence of the Ch'an school as it strove for acceptance and self-definition. However, there is no compelling reason to doubt the historicity of Bodhidharma himself. Numerous early records speak approvingly of him (or someone by that name) as wise and compassionate, and there exists a work purported to be of his composition called The Two Entrances and Four Practices. These witnesses confirm that he came from the west, that he was well practised in meditation, and that he had a disciple named Hui-k'o. The Two Entrances and Four Practices gives his teaching on meditation and wisdom in terms that echo later Ch'an practice. However, far from being an iconoclastic and mysterious figure who rejects 'words and letters', these early sources present him as a master of a particular scripture, the Lankavatara Sutra, and remark on his willingness to speak quite plainly and openly about his understanding of the teachings. All earlier sources report that he himself claimed to be over 150 years old, and one says that the time and circumstances of his death were unknown.
[ Last edited by northwest at 2007-6-20 09:51 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:08 PM
Mathematics - The Language of Science
QUOTE:
¡°Like the crest of a peacock, like the gem on the head of a snake, so is mathematics at the head of all knowledge.¡±
¨C Vedanga Jyotisa.
In mental abstraction and concentration of thought the Hindus are proverbially happy. Apart from direct testimony on the point, the literature of the Hindus furnishes unmistakable evidence to prove that the ancient Hindus possessed astonishing power of memory and concentration of thought. The science of mathematics, the most abstract of all sciences, must have an irresistible fascination for the minds of the Hindus.
The great German critic, Schlegel wrote in his History of Literature, p. 123: "The decimal cyphers, the honor of which, next to letters the most important of human discoveries, has, with the common consent of historical authorities, been ascribed to Hindus."
Mathematics is the science to which Indians have contributed the most. Our decimal system, place notation, numbers 1 through 9, and the ubiquitous 0, are all major Indian contributions to world science. Without them, our modern world of computer sciences, earth-launched satellites, microchips, and artificial intelligence would all have been impossible.
(source: An Introduction to India - By Stanley Wolpert p. 194).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:09 PM
Hermann Hankel (1839 - 1873) born in Halle, Germany in his History of Mathematics says:
¡° It is remarkable to what extent Indian Mathematics enters into the Science of our time¡±
(source: Is India Civilized? - Essays on Indian Culture - By Sir John Woodroffe Ganesh & Co. Publishers 1922 p. 182).
The earliest recorded Indian mathematics was found along the banks of the Indus. Archaeologists have uncovered several scales, instruments, and other measuring devices. The Harappans employed a variety of plumb bobs that reveal a system of weights 27.584 grams. If we assign that a value of 1, other weights scale in at .05, .1, .2, .5, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500. These weights have been found in sites that span a five-thousand-year period, with little change in size.
Archaeologists also found a ¡°ruler¡± made of shell lines drawn 6.7 millimeters apart with a high degree of accuracy. Two of the lines are distinguished by circles and are separated by 33.5 millimeters, or 1.32 inches. This distance is the so-called Indus inch.
(source: Lost Discoveries - Dick Teresi p. 59).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:11 PM
Dr. David Gray writes:
"The study of mathematics in the West has long been characterized by a certain ethnocentric bias, a bias which most often manifests not in explicit racism, but in a tendency toward undermining or eliding the real contributions made by non-Western civilizations. The debt owed by the West to other civilizations, and to India in particular, go back to the earliest epoch of the "Western" scientific tradition, the age of the classical Greeks, and continued up until the dawn of the modern era, the renaissance, when Europe was awakening from its dark ages."
Dr Gray goes on to list some of the most important developments in the history of mathematics that took place in India, summarizing the contributions of luminaries such as Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Mahavira, Bhaskara and Maadhava. He concludes by asserting that "the role played by India in the development (of the scientific revolution in Europe) is no mere footnote, easily and inconsequentially swept under the rug of Eurocentric bias. To do so is to distort history, and to deny India one of its greatest contributions to world civilization."
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:12 PM
Mathematics and Music:
Pingala (3rd C AD), author of Chandasutra explored the relationship between combinatorics and musical theory anticipating Mersenne (1588-1648) author of a classic on musical theory.
His contributions to mathematics include:
The formation of a matrix.
Invention of the binary number system (while he was forming a matrix for musical purposes).
The concept of a binary code, similar to Morse code.
First use of the Fibonacci sequence.
First use of Pascal's triangle, which he refers to as Meru-prastaara.
Used a dot (.) to denote zero.
His work, along with Panini's work, was foundational to the development of computing.
(source: Science and Mathematics in India).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:13 PM
Fascination with numbers has been an abiding characteristic of Indian civilization, not only large numbers but very small ones as well. Operations with zero attracted the interest of both Bhaskaracharya (b. 1114) and Srinivas Ramanujan (1887-1920).
In Ramayana, the great Indian epic, there is a description of two armies facing, each other. The size of the larger army led by Rama is given as follows in a 17th century translation of the epic by Kottayam Kerala varma Thampuran:
Hundred hundred thousands make a Crore
Hundred thousand crores make a Sankhu
Hundred thousand sankhus make a Maha-sankhu
Hundred thousand maha-sankhus make a Vriundam
Hundred thousand vriundam make a Maha-vriundam
Hundred thousand maha-vriundams make a Padmam
Hundred thousand padmams make a Maha-padmam
Hundred thousand maha-padmams make a Kharvam
Hundred thousand kharvams make a Maha-kharvam
Hundred thousand maha-kharvams make a Samudra
Hundred thousand samudras make a Maha-ougham.
The importance of number names in the evolution of the decimal place value notation in India cannot be exaggerated. The word-numeral system was the logical outcome of proceeding by multiples of ten. Thus, in an early system, 60,799 is denoted by the Sanskrit word sastim (60), shsara (thousand), sapta (seven) satani (hundred), navatim (nine ten times) and nava (nine). Such a system presupposes a scientifically based vocabulary of number names in which the principles of addition, subtraction and multiplication are used. It requires:
1. the naming of the first nine digits (eka, dvi, tri, catur, pancha, sat, sapta, asta, nava);
2. a second group of nine numbers obtained by multiplying each of the nine digits in 1 by ten (dasa, vimsat, trimsat, catvarimsat, panchasat, sasti, saptati, astiti, navati): and
3. a group of numbers which are increasing integral powers of 10, starting with 102 (satam sagasara, ayut, niyuta, prayuta, arbuda, nyarbuda, samudra, Madhya, anta, parardha¡).
To understand why word numerals persisted in India, even after the Indian numerals became widespread, it is necessary to recognize the importance of the oral mode of preserving and disseminating knowledge. An important characteristic of written texts in India from times immemorial was the sutra style of writing, which presented information in a cryptic form, leaving out details and rationale to be filled in by teachers and commentators. In short pithy sentences, often expressed in verse, the sutras enabled the reader to memorize the content easily.
(source: The crest of the peacock: Non-European roots of Mathematics - By George Gheverghese Joseph p.401 - 403).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:14 PM
In the Vedic age, India was ahead of the rest in mathematics and astronomy. Thus, the geometry of the Shulba Sutras (The Rules of the Cord), geometrical appendices to the manuals of ritual (Shrauta Sutras) include the oldest known formulation of the theorem named after Pythagoras, developed in the context of Vedic altar-building. The first decimal system and the oldest names of "astronomical" numbers such as quadrillions and quintillions. Arabs still call the decimal system rakmu 'l-Hind, from Hind, "India."
(source: Mathematics as Known to the Vedic Samhitas - By M. D. Pandit p. 20).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:15 PM
Highly intellectual and given to abstract thinking as they were, one would expect the ancient Indians to excel in mathematics. Ancient Indians developed a system of mathematics far superior, to that of the Greeks. Ancient Vedic mathematicians devised sutras for solving mathematical problems with apparent ease. Among the most vital parts of our heritage are the numerals and the decimal system. The miscalled "Arabic" numerals are found on the Rock Edicts of Ashoka (250 B.C.), a thousand years before their occurrence in Arabic literature. Hindsaa (numerals) in Arabic means from India. Jawaharlal Nehru has said, " The clumsy method of using a counting frame and the use of Roman and such like numerals had long retarded progress when the ten Indian numerals, including the zero sign, liberated the human mind from these restrictions and threw a flood of light on the behavior of numbers."
(source: The Discovery of India - By Jawaharlal Nehru Oxford University Press. 1995 p. 216).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 03:17 PM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:15 PM
Vedanga Jyotisa says "As are the crests on the heads of peacocks, as are the gems on the hoods of the snakes so is the ganita (Mathematics) at the top of the sciences known as Vedanga. In this period, ganita is a comprehensive term which included arithmetic, algebra and astronomy. Geometry was also investigated but was placed in a different general science known as kalpa. Indians were the first to use the decimal either to increase or decrease the value of the figure which was presided by Laplace, the great French mathematician. Indians were the first to use the 'zero' as a symbol in mathematics. They invented the present numerical system. India teachers taught arithmetic and algebra, Vedic Sulva Sutras were earlier than the Alexandrian geometry of Hero. The earliest available work was Bakshali Manuscript. Ganita-Sara-Sangraham of Mahavira acarya who lived between Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya.
The 'Pythagoras theorem' which stated in Sulva Sutras by Baudhayana's (6th century C. E): "The diagonal of a rectangle produces both areas, which its length and breadth produce separately." Arya Bhatta discovered the method of finding out the areas of a triangle, a trapezium and a circle. The approximate value of an 'irrational number' i.e. 2 (dvikarani) (1.143256) and 3 (1.7320513) can be obtained, Baudhayana and Apastamba.
In the geometry of the circle, "Arybhatta I" gave a value for pi (tyajya) which is correct to the four decimal places in a sloka (Sankara Varman's treatise on astronomy, Sadratnamala) theorems and their deductions:
"Lemma of Brahmagupta for integral solution or the indeterminate equation of second degree. John Pell (1611-1685) discovered this in the 17th century. Indians discovered it a 1,000 years earlier.
(source: Hinduism and Scientific Quest - By T R. R. Iyengar p. 151-152).
Author: wowzers Time: 2007-6-20 03:16 PM Subject: changabula
I really admire your commitment to this forum.
And your various contributions.
Thank you!
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:20 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by wowzers at 2007-6-20 15:16
I really admire your commitment to this forum.
And your various contributions.
Thank you!
Thanks very much. Hope you enjoy it as much as I do.
I thought that I would leave you guys to debate the serious issues.
I hope to cover all the major civilizations next.
Maybe Greeks, Egyptians, Arabs, Europeans, Modern.
Too big a task though.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:21 PM
The most fundamental contribution of ancient India in mathematics is the invention of decimal system of enumeration, including the invention of zero. The decimal system uses nine digits (1 to 9) and the symbol zero (for nothing) to denote all natural numbers by assigning a place value to the digits. The Arabs carried this system to Africa and Europe. The Vedas and Valmiki Ramayana used this system, though the exact dates of these works are not known. MohanjoDaro and Harappa excavations (which may be around 3000 B.C. old) also give specimens of writing in India. Aryans came 1000 years later, around 2000 B.C. Being very religious people, they were deeply interested in planetary positions to calculate auspicious times, and they developed astronomy and mathematics towards this end. They identified various nakshatras (constellations) and named the months after them. They could count up to 1012, while the Greeks could count up to 104 and Romans up to 108. Values of irrational numbers were also known to them to a high degree of approximation. Pythagoras Theorem can be also traced to the Aryan's Sulbasutras. These Sutras, estimated to be between 800 B.C. and 500 B.C., cover a large number of geometric principles.
Said the great and magnanimous Pierre Simon de Laplace, (1749-1827) French mathematician, philosopher, and astronomer, a contemporary of Napoleon :
" It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by ten symbols, each receiving a value of position as well as an absolute value, a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit. But its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement the more when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Appollnius, two of the greatest men produced by antiquity."
(source: The Discovery of India - By Jawaharlal Nehru Oxford University Press. 1995 p. 217).
Brilliant as it was, this invention was no accident. In the Western world, the cumbersome Roman numeral system posed as a major obstacle, and in China the pictorial script posed as a hindrance. But in India, almost everything was in place to favor such a development. There was already a long and established history in the use of decimal numbers, and philosophical and cosmological constructs encouraged a creative and expansive approach to number theory. Panini's studies in linguistic theory and formal language and the powerful role of symbolism and representational abstraction in art and architecture may have also provided an impetus, as might have the rationalist doctrines and the exacting epistemology of the Nyaya Sutras, and the innovative abstractions of the Syadavada and Buddhist schools of learning.
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 03:22 PM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:23 PM
Panini and Formal Scientific Notation
A particularly important development in the history of Indian science that was to have a profound impact on all mathematical treatises that followed was the pioneering work by Panini (6th C BC) in the field of Sanskrit grammar and linguistics. Besides expounding a comprehensive and scientific theory of phonetics, phonology and morphology, Panini provided formal production rules and definitions describing Sanskrit grammar in his treatise called Asthadhyayi. Basic elements such as vowels and consonants, parts of speech such as nouns and verbs were placed in classes. The construction of compound words and sentences was elaborated through ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner similar to formal language theory.
Today, Panini's constructions can also be seen as comparable to modern definitions of a mathematical function. G G Joseph, in The crest of the peacock argues that the algebraic nature of Indian mathematics arises as a consequence of the structure of the Sanskrit language. Ingerman in his paper titled Panini-Backus form finds Panini's notation to be equivalent in its power to that of Backus - inventor of the Backus Naur Form used to describe the syntax of modern computer languages. Thus Panini's work provided an example of a scientific notational model that could have propelled later mathematicians to use abstract notations in characterizing algebraic equations and presenting algebraic theorems and results in a scientific format.
(source: Science and Mathematics in India).
The decimal system was known to Aryabhatta and Brahmagupta long before its appearance in the writings of the Arabs and the Syrians; it was adopted by China from Buddhist missionaries; and Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarazni, the greatest mathematician of his age (ca 850 A.D.), seems to have introduced it into Baghdad.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:38 PM
Zero, this most modest and most valuable of all numerals is one of the subtle gifts of India to mankind. The earliest use of the zero symbol, so far discovered, is in one of the scriptural books dated about 200 B.C. The zero, called shunya or nothing, was originally a dot and later it became a small circle. It was considered as a number like any other. Professor G. B. Halsted, in his book ' Mathematics for the Million' (London 1942) thus emphasizes the vital significance of this invention:
"The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. This giving to airy nothing, not merely a local habitation and a name, a picture, a symbol but helpful power, is the characteristic of the Hindu race whence it sprang. It is like coining the Nirvana into dynamos. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on-go of intelligence and power." It was India that first domesticated zero, through the Hindu familiarity with the concepts of infinity and the void. Neither pagan Rome nor the Christian Europe of the Middle Ages had any truck with it. It's all, as the Hindus knew, a play between the void and the absolute.
Yet another modern mathematician has grown eloquent over this historic event. Dantzig in his 'Number' writes:
"This long period of nearly five thousand years saw the rise and fall of many a civilization, each leaving behind a heritage of literature, art, philosophy, and religion. But what was the net achievement in the field of reckoning, the earliest art practiced by man? An inflexible numeration so crude as to make progress well nigh impossible, and a calculating device so limited in scope that even elementary calculations called for the services of an expert.....When viewed in this light the achievements of the unknown Hindu, who sometime in the first centuries of our era discovered the principle of position, assumes the importance of a world event."
Dantzig is puzzled at the fact that the great mathematicians of Greece did not stumble on this discovery.
"Is it that the Greeks had such a marked contempt for applied science, leaving even the instruction of their children to the slaves? But if so, how is it that the nation that gave us geometry and carried this science so far did not create a rudimentary algebra? that corner-stone of modern mathematics, also originated in India, and at about the same time that positional numeration did?"
(source: The Discovery of India - By Jawaharlal Nehru Oxford University Press. 1995 p. 218)
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:40 PM
The Unsung Mathematician:
An important Mathematics book prescribed by the New York State Education Department acknowledges the debt in the following words:
"The Western world owes a great deal to India for a simple invention. It was developed by an unknown Indian more than 1500 years ago. Without it most of the great discoveries and inventions (including computers) of western civilization would never have come about. This invention was the decimal system of numerals - nine digits and a zero. The science and technology of today (including the computers) could not have developed if we had only the Roman system of numerals. That system is too clumsy to be used as a scientific tool. Today we take the decimal system for granted. We don't think about how brilliant the man who invented zero must have been. Yet without zero we could not assign a place value to the digits. That ancient mathematician, whoever, he was, deserves much honor."
Indians also made advances in other areas of mathematics. Very early in their history they developed a simple system of geometry. This system was used to plan outdoor sites for Indian religious ceremonies. Indians also added to our knowledge of even more complicated branches of mathematics such as trigonometry and calculus. They studied these branches of mathematics in order to apply them to astronomy."
(source: Harry Shor and Gloria Meng, Exploring Algebra).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 03:41 PM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:42 PM
Charles Seife, a journalist with Science magazine, has also written for New Scientist, Scientific American, The Economist, Science, Wired UK, The Sciences, and numerous other publications. He holds an M.S. in mathematics from Yale University and his areas of research include probability theory and artificial intelligence. He is a mathematician and science writer, author of Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea says:
"Perhaps no one has embraced nothing as strongly as the Indians who, Seife notes, "never had a fear of the infinite or of the void." Hinduism has embedded within it, a complex philosophy of nothingness, seeing everything in the world as arising from the pregnant void, known as Sunya.
"The ultimate goal of the Hindu was to free himself from the endless cycle of pain found in continual reincarnation and reconnect with the Nothingness that is the source and fundament of the All. For Indians, the void of Sunya was the very font of all potential; nothingness was liberation. No surprise then that it is from this sophisticated culture that we inherit the mathematical analog of nothing, zero. Like Sunya, zero is a kind of place holder, a symbol signifying a pregnant space where any other number might potentially reside."
(source: Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea: It's weird, it's counterintuitive and the Greeks hated it. Why did the Church reject the use of zero?
http://www.calendarlive.com/top/1,1419,L-LATimes-Books-X!ArticleDetail-26133,00.html
http://www.salon.com/books/review/2000/03/03/seife/index.html).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:45 PM
Lancelot Thomas Hogben (1895-1975) English zoologist and geneticist, has written:
"In the whole history of Mathematics, there has been no more revolutionary step than the one which the Hindus made when they invented the sign ¡®0¡¯ for the empty column of the counting frame."
(source: Mathematics for the Million - By Lancelot Thomas Hogben p. 47).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:45 PM
The concept of Debits and negative numbers originated in India, and why were they not accepted until recently? It was much more than 2000 years ago. It wasn't accepted elsewhere because the Church did not think it possible.
The paper of Reuben Burrow (1798-1868) "A Proof that the Hindus had the Binomial Theorem." (published in 1790) Asiatic Researches 2 (1790): 487-97 is more proof for us that the western world was aware of the Indian achievement in the field of combinational mathematics. Then, the problem would be one of explaining how the so called 'Pascal's triangle' continues to bear his name, or how the British reference books like the Encyclopedia Britannica persisted (till well into the 20th century) in crediting Newton with the discovery of the binomial theorem.
(source: India Through The Ages: History, Art Culture and Religion - By G. Kuppuram p. 672-673).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:47 PM
The Hindus knew mathematics much early. In the Rig Veda (2-18, 4 to 6), there are references to ¡®two¡¯, ¡®four¡¯, ¡®eight¡¯, ¡®ten.¡¯
Aa dvabhyam haribhyamindryahya
chaturbhirashadabhi rhuya manah ashtabhirdashabhih
Also in Vajasaneya Samhita (17.2), there is the passage referring to 1, 10, 100, 1000 etc.
Eka cha dasha cha dasha cha shatam cha shatam cha
sahasram cha sahasram cha yutam cha ayutam cha
niyutam cha niyutam cha prayutam cha. Etc.
In Mahabharata there are references to addition and subtraction. Adhikam (more), Unam (less), Shesham (remaining), multiplication and division are indicated. For example, ¡°60 thousand camels and twice the number of horses¡± are referred to.
In Rig Veda (10.62.7), Nabhanedishta praises King Savarni for giving in charity one thousand cows, who had the figure 8 on their ears and so were called Ashta Karni. It seems that gambling was very common in the Vedic days, and it involved dices and numbers. According to Yajur Veda, Vajasneya Samhita (4.3,3), in the Rajasuya sacrifice, five was called Abhiburasi. In another kind of gambling, the dice (Aksha) used four names of the four Ages namely Krita, Treta, Dvapar and Kali and they were numbered 4, 3, 2 and 1. The numbers from one to one thousand billion are found in the Vajasneya Samhita and also in Taitteriya, Maitrayani and Kathaka Samhitas.
In Sama Veda, in the 25th Brahmana, there is a reference to how much fees (dakshina) should be given to a priest in sacrifice (Yajna). It may be at least 12 (Krishnala) milligrams of gold, and doubling the figure, it can go up to 3,93,216.
The system they adopt in giving page numbers in old manuscripts in Malabar and in Andhra was to have 34 digits of consonants from Ka to La and then to have the next 34 digits by adding vowels Kaa to Laa. They can number pages upto 408 (34 x 12). Burma also had the same system for pagination.
(source: Hinduism: Its Contribution to Science and Civilization - By Prabhakar Balvant Machwe p. 10 -14).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:48 PM
The Notion of Infinity and zero:
There is a beautiful definition of the infinite in the following line of a Vedic mantra, which forms the introductory verse to the Isa Upanishad:
It says: Take the whole (Infinite Brahman) from the whole, and the whole still remains. This is almost like the mathematician, Cantor's definition of infinity.
The very names of the numerals are of Sanskrit origin. Professor Arthur Macdonell says in his A History of Sanskrit Literature: "During the eighth and ninth centuries, the Indians became the teachers in arithmetic and algebra of the Arabs, and through them of the nations of the west. Thus, though we call the latter science by an Arabic name, it is a gift we owe to India."
(source: Indian Culture and the Modern Age - By Dewan Bahadur K. S. Ramaswami Sastri Annamalai University. 1956 p.66-67).
The linkage of God with the infinite is found in the Bhagavad Gita, by tradition spoken by Lord Krishna himself, we read:
¡°O Lord of the universe, I see You everywhere with infinite form¡Neither do I see the beginning nor the middle nor the end of Your Universal Form.¡±
(source: Infinity: The Quest to Think the Unthinkable - By Brian Clegg p. 54).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:50 PM
Zero to Infinity in Indian Mysticism
Ananta is Sanskrit for infinity. It is equated with the Supreme Brahman ¡ª infinitely powerful and so infinitely free. It is bigger than any quantity that can be imagined; it is bigger than any finite number. Infinity is one of the fundamental axioms upon which contemporary mathematics is based. Sanskrit grammar and interpretation in ancient India were closely linked to the handling of high value numbers. Studies relating to poetry and metrics initiated sastragnaas or scientists to both arithmetic and grammar. Grammarians were just as competent at calculations as professional mathematicians. Indian sastragnaas or scientists, philosophers, astronomers and cosmographers ¡ª in order to develop their arithmetical, metaphysical and cosmological speculations concerning ever higher numbers ¡ª became at once mathematicians, grammarians and poets. They gave their spoken counting system a truly mathematical structure which had the potential to lead directly to the discovery of the decimal place-value system.
In Indian mysticism, the concept of infinity and zero are very closely linked. In the Isavasya Upanishad, there¡¯s a line: ¡°Poornasya poornam aadaya poornameva visish-yate¡±. To mathematically explain this, we have to assume that the first poornam represents infinity and the second, zero. In Sanskrit, poornam means both full and zero. Indian mathematicians knew perfectly well how to distinguish between these two notions which are mutually contradictory and which are the inverse of each other. They knew that division by zero gave them infinity. The concept of infinity has always remained an enigma. The Taittiriya Upanishad says: yatho vacho nivartante, apraapya manasa saha ¡ª where mind and speech return (being) unable to comprehend. In Indian cosmology, Ananta refers to the Adisesha or the great serpent on which Lord Vishnu reclines, taking His yoga nidra or anantasayanam.
The symbol for infinity is called the leminiscate. English mathematician John Wallis introduced this symbol for the first time in 1655. Hindu mythological iconography contains a similar symbol representing the same idea. The symbol is that of Ananta, the great Adisesha of infinity and eternity, which is always represented, coiled up in a horizontal figure of 8 just like the leminiscate.
Negative numbers had been rejected as solutions of problems in early times. They were eventually admitted in Hindu practical mathematics through problems involving money transactions, since the idea of receiving and owing money was a simple and obvious one ¡ª a negative number could be interpreted as a debt. Objection to negative numbers continued up to the early 19th century. Negative numbers are the mirror image of positive numbers. The invention of Cartesian geometry brought the X, Y co-ordinates and numbers came to be represented on a graph. Today, the series of negative natural numbers go up to infinity.
(source: Zero to Infinity in Indian Mysticism - By T R Rajagopalan - Times of India).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:52 PM
In his speech introducing the Indian Budget March 1st, 1926, Sir Basil Blackett said:
"India long ago revolutionized mathematics, and provided the West with the key to the most far reaching of all the mechanical instrument on which its control of nature has been built, when it presented to Europe through the medium of Arabia the device of the cypher (and the decimal notation) upon which all modern system of numeration depend. even so, India today or tomorrow, will, I am confident, revolutionize western doctrines of progress by demonstrating the insufficiency and lack of finality of much of the West's present system of human values."
(source: India in Bondage: Her Right to Freedom - Rev. Jabez T. Sunderland p.356-357).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:53 PM
Georges Ifrah ( ? ) French historian of Mathematics and author of the book, The Universal History of Numbers has written:
"The Indian mind has always had for calculations and the handling of numbers an extraordinary inclination, ease and power, such as no other civilization in history ever possessed to the same degree. So much so that Indian culture regarded the science of numbers as the noblest of its arts...A thousand years ahead of Europeans, Indian savants knew that the zero and infinity were mutually inverse notions."
(source: Histoire Universelle des Chiffres - By Georges Ifrah Paris - Robert Laffont, 1994, volume 2. p. 3).
¡°The real inventors of [the numeral system], which is no less important than such feats as the mastery of fire, the development of agriculture, or the invention of the wheel, writing or the steam engine, were the mathematicians and astronomers of Indian civilization: scholars who, unlike the Greeks, were concerned with practical applications and who were motivated by a kind of passion for both numbers and numerical calculations.¡±
Claiming India to be the true birthplace of our numerals, Ifrah salutes the Indian researchers saying that the "...real inventors of this fundamental discovery, which is no less important than such feats as the mastery of fire, the development of agriculture, or the invention of the wheel, writing or the steam engine, were the mathematicians and astronomers of the Indian civilization: scholars who, unlike the Greeks, were concerned with practical applications and who were motivated by a kind of passion for both numbers and numerical calculations."
He refers to 24 evidences from scriptures from India, whose dates range from 1150 BC until 458 BC. Of particular interest is the work by Indian mathematician Bhaskaracharya known as Bhaskara (1150 BC) where he makes a reference to zero and the place-value system were invented by the god Brahma. In other words, these notions were so well established in Indian thought and tradition that at this time they were considered to have always been used by humans, and thus to have constituted a "revelation" of the divinities.
"It was only after the eighth century BC, and doubtless due to the influence of the Indian Buddhist missionaries, that Chinese mathematicians introduced the use of zero in the form of a little circle or dot (signs that originated in India),...".
The early passion which Indian civilization had for high numbers was a significant factor contributing to the discovery of the place-value system, and not only offered the Indians the incentive to go beyond the "calculable" physical world, but also led to an understanding (much earlier than in our civilization) of the notion of mathematical infinity itself.
Sanskrit notation had an excellent conceptual quality. It was easy to use and moreover it facilitated the conception of the highest imaginable numbers. This is why it was so well suited to the most exuberant numerical or arithmetical-cosmogonic speculations of Indian culture."
"The Indian people were the only civilization to take the decisive step towards the perfection of numerical notation. We owe the discovery of modern numeration and the elaboration of the very foundations of written calculations to India alone."
"It is clear how much we owe to this brilliant civilization, and not only in the field of arithmetic; by opening the way to the generalization of the concept of the number, the Indian scholars enabled the rapid development of mathematics and exact sciences. The discoveries of these men doubtless required much time and imagination, and above all a great ability for abstract thinking. These major discoveries took place within an environment which was at once mystical, philosophical, religious, cosmological, mythological and metaphysical."
"In India, an aptitude for the study of numbers and arithmetical research was often combined with a surprising tendency towards metaphysical abstractions; in fact, the latter is so deeply ingrained in Indian thought and tradition that one meets it in all fields of study, from the most advanced mathematical ideas to disciplines completely unrelated to 'exact sciences.
In short, Indian science was born out of a mystical and religious culture and the etymology of the Sanskrit words used to describe numbers and the science of numbers bears witness to this fact. "
"Sanskrit means ¡°complete¡±, ¡°perfect¡± and ¡°definitive¡±. In fact, this language is extremely elaborate, almost artificial, and is capable of describing multiple levels of meditation, states of consciousness and psychic, spiritual and even intellectual processes. As for vocabulary, its richness is considerable and highly diversified. Sanskrit has for centuries lent itself admirably to the diverse rules of prosody and versification. Thus we can see why poetry has played such a preponderant role in all of Indian culture and Sanskrit literature. "
(source: The Universal History of Numbers - By Georges Ifrah p 365 - 441).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:55 PM
Brian Clegg ( ? ) author of popular science books has written:
"The characters we use for the numbers arrived here from India via the Arabic world. The Brahmi numerals that have been found in caves and on coins around Mumbai from around the first century AD use horizontal lines for 1 to 3. The squiggles used for 4 to 9, however, are clear ancestors of the numbers we use today. These symbols were gradually taken up by Arabs and came to Western attention in the 13th century thanks to two books, on written by a traveler from Pisa, the other by a philosopher in Baghdad. The earlier book was written by the philosopher al-Khwarizmi in the 9th century. The Latin translation Algoritmi de numero Indorum (al-Khwarizmi on the numbers of the Hindus).
The translation of De numero Indorum slightly predates the man who is credited with introducing the system to the West. Leonardo of Pisa, or by his nickname Fibonacci. In the comments in his book Liberabaci, written in 1202, he states that he was ¡°introduced to the art of Indian¡¯s nine symbols¡± and it was this book that really brought the Hindu system to the West.
(source: Infinity: The Quest to Think the Unthinkable - By Brian Clegg p. 54 - 60).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:56 PM
Carl B. Boyer (1906 ¨C 1976) in his "History of Mathematics" pages 227-228¡±. ¡°...Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khwarizmi, ..., who died sometime before 850, wrote more than a half dozen astronomical and mathematical works, of which the earliest were probably based on the Sindhind derived from India. Besides ... [he] wrote two books on arithmetic and algebra which played very important roles in the history of mathematics. ... In this work, based presumably on an Arabic translation of Brahmagupta, al-Khwarizmi gave so full an account of the Hindu numerals that he probably is responsible for the widespread but false impression that our system of numeration is Arabic in origin. ...
Edward Sachau, In a translation of Alberuni ¡®s ¡°Indica¡±, a seminal work of this period (c.1030 AD), writes this in his introduction, ¡°Many Arab authors took up the subjects communicated to them by the Hindus and worked them out in original compositions , commentaries and extracts. A favourite subject of theirs was Indian mathematics..." etc.
¡° Al-Khwarizmi wrote numerous books that played important roles in arithematic and algebra. In his work, De numero indorum (Concerning the Hindu Art of Reckoning), it was based presumably on an Arabic translation of Brahmagupta where he gave a full account of the Hindu numerals which was the first to expound the system with its digits 0,1,2,3,....,9 and decimal place value which was a fairly recent arrival from India. Because of this book with the Latin translations made a false inquiry that our system of numeration is arabic in origin. The new notation came to be known as that of al-Khwarizmi, or more carelessly, algorismi; ultimately the scheme of numeration making use of the Hindu numerals came to be called simply algorism or algorithm, a word that, originally derived from the name al-Khwarizmi, now means, more generally, any peculiar rule of procedure or operation.
Interestingly, as the article notes, ¡°The Hindu numerals like much new mathematics were not welcomed by all. In 1299 there was a law in the commercial center of Florence forbidding their use; to this day this law is respected when we write the amount on a check in longhand .¡±
¡°It is now universally accepted that our decimal numbers derive from forms, which were invented in India and transmitted via Arab culture to Europe, undergoing a number of changes on the way. We also know that several different ways of writing numbers evolved in India before it became possible for existing decimal numerals to be marred with the place-value principle of the Babylonians to give birth to the system which eventually became the one which we use today. Because of lack of authentic records, very little is known of the development of ancient Hindu mathematics. The earliest history is preserved in the 5000-year-old ruins of a city at Mohenjo Daro, located Northeast of present-day Karachi in Pakistan. Evidence of wide streets, brick dwellings an apartment houses with tiled bathrooms, covered city drains, and community swimming pools indicates a civilisation as advanced as that found anywhere else in the ancient Orient.
These early peoples had systems of writing, counting, weighing, and measuring, and they dug canals for irrigation. All this required basic mathematics and engineering. ¡°The special interest of the Indian system is that it is the earliest form of the one, which we use today. Two and three were represented by repetitions of the horizontal stroke for one. There were distinct symbols for four to nine and also for ten and multiples of ten up to ninety, and for hundred and thousand.¡±
¡°¡Knowledge of the Hindu system spread through the Arab world, reaching the Arabs of the West in Spain before the end of the tenth century. The earliest European manuscript, which came from the Hindu numerals were modified in north-Spain from the year 976.¡± And finally an important point for those who maintain that the concept of zero was also evident in some other civilisations: ¡°Only the Hindus within the context of Indo-European civilisations have consistently used zero.¡±
(source: Hindu contribution to Mathematics - By B Shantanu - indiacause.com).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 03:57 PM
Gopala and Hemachandra and rhythmic patterns
Donald Knuth (1938 - ) of Stanford University in The Art of Computer Programming also wrote about this:
"Before Fibonacci wrote his work, the sequence Fn had already been discussed by Indian scholars, who had long been interested in rhythmic patterns that are formed from one-beat and two-beat notes. The number of such rhythms having n beats altogether is Fn+1; therefore both Gopala (before 1135) and Hemachandra (c. 1150) mentioned the numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, ... explicitly."
The system that Fibonacci introduced into Europe came from India and used the symbols 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 with, most importantly, a symbol for zero 0.
(source: Who was Fibonacci? and Origins of Fibonacci number and Fibonacci numbers or Hemecandra numbers? and Gopala and Hemachandra numbers everywhere - sepiamutiny.com Hemachandra).
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Ian G. Pearce ( ? ) has written: ¡°Mathematics has long been considered an invention of European scholars, as a result of which the contributions of non-European countries have been severely neglected in histories of mathematics. Worse still, many key mathematical developments have been wrongly attributed to scholars of European origin. This has led to so-called Eurocentrism. ...The purpose of my project is to highlight the major mathematical contributions of Indian scholars and further to emphasize where neglect has occurred and hence elucidate why the Eurocentric ideal is an injustice and in some cases complete fabrication.¡±
¡°It is through the works of Vedic religion that we gain the first literary evidence of Indian culture and hence mathematics. Written in Vedic Sanskrit the Vedic works, Vedas and Vedangas (and later Sulbasutras) are primarily religious in content, but embody a large amount of astronomical knowledge and hence a significant knowledge of mathematics. ... 'The need to determine the correct times for Vedic ceremonies and the accurate construction of altars led to the development of astronomy and geometry.'¡±
¡°I feel it important not to be controversial or sweeping, but it is likely European scholars are resistant due to the way in which the inclusion of non-European, including Indian, contributions shakes up views that have been held for hundreds of years, and challenges the very foundations of the Eurocentric ideology. ... It is almost more in the realms of psychology and culture that we argue about the effect the discoveries of non-European science may have had on the 'psyche' of European scholars. ... To summarize, the main reasons for the neglect of Indian mathematics seem to be religious, cultural and psychological¡±
(source: Indian Mathematics: Redressing the balance' - 'Abstract' - By Ian G. Pearce ¨C '(IGP-IM:RB) 'Mathematics in the service of religion: I. Vedas and Vedangas' and Conclusion.
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:00 PM
Remarking on this valuable contribution specially the discovery of number from one to nine and zero, which is considered to be the greatest and the most important, next only to the introduction of letters, Prof. Halsted of USA holds that no discovery in Arithmetic has contributed so much in the development of human intelligence and power. The Hindus can claim to be superior to the Greeks for the introduction of this system.
(source: Ancient Indian Culture At A Glance - By Swami Tattwananda Calcutta, Oxford Book Co. 1962 p. 121).
Zero is the embodiment of purna (full), lopa (absence), akasa (universe), bindu (dot), sunya (circle), in Indian literary and cultural traditions. The concept got concretized in the form of a symbol like dot or circle to fill up the empty space created in Indian decimal place-value concept. The scientific advances of the West would have been impossible had scientists continued to depend upon the Roman numerals and been deprived of the simplicity and flexibility of the decimal system and its main glory, the zero.
A 10th century traveler Masaudi, in his Arabic work Meadows of Gold, records that a Hindu Raja called Pandit who counted nine digits by memory. Abu Zafar Muhammad Al Khwarizm also mentions Hindu mathematicians, as does Al Beruni. In the Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society (1907 p. 475), Feroz Abadi is quoted to have given the history of ¡®Hindsa¡¯ (= 0).
The number ¡®10¡¯ is a special contribution of Hindu arithmetic. So the zero was called ¡®Hindsa¡¯ in Persian.
(source: Hinduism: Its Contribution to Science and Civilization - By Prabhakar Balvant Machwe p. 10-14).
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khawarazmi 772-773 A.D. who journeyed east to India to learn the sciences of that time. He introduced Hindu numerals, including the concept of zero, into the Arab world. Abu Abdulla Muhammad Ibrahim-al-Fazari translated Sidhanta from Sanskrit into Arabic, which, according to George Sarton (1884-1956) the great Harvard historian of science, wrote in his monumental Introduction to the History of Science, provided "possibly the vehicle by means of which the Hindu numerals were transmitted from India to Islam".
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:01 PM
Algebra
Brahmagupta gives the following rules concerning operations carried out on what he calls ¡°fortunes¡± (dhana), ¡°debts¡± (rina) and ¡°nothing¡± (kha).
A debt minus zero is a debt.
A fortune minus zero is a fortune.
Zero (shunya) minus zero is nothing. (kha).
A debt subtracted from zero is a fortune.
So a fortune subtracted from zero is a debt.
The product of zero multiplied by a debt or fortune is zero.
The product of zero multiplied by itself is nothing.
The product or the quotient of two fortunes is one fortune.
The product or the quotient of two debts is one debt.
The product or the quotient of a debt multiplied by a fortune is a debt.
The product or the quotient of a fortune multiplied by a debt is a debt.
Modern algebra was born, and the mathematician had thus formulated the basic rules: by replacing ¡°fortune¡± and ¡°debt¡± respectively with ¡°positive number¡± and ¡°negative number¡±, we can see that at that time the Indian mathematicians knew the famous ¡°rule of signs¡± as well as all the fundamental rules of algebra.
(source: The Universal History of Numbers - By Georges Ifrah p 439).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:03 PM
Florian Cajori (1859 - 1930) Swiss-born U.S. educator and mathematician whose works on the history of mathematics says:
"Indians were the ¡°real inventors of Algebra¡±
(source: Is India Civilized - Essays on Indian Culture - By Sir John Woodroffe Ganesh & Co. Publishers 1922 p. 182).
Friedrich Rosen (1805-1837) edited and translated in 1831, The Algebra of Mohammed ben Musa. This is the oldest Arabic on mathematics and it shows that the Arabs borrowed algebra from India.
(source: German Indologists: Biographies of Scholars in Indian Studies writing in German - By Valentine Stache-Rosen p.24-25).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:04 PM
Algebra went to Western Europe from the Arabs - i.e. (Al-jabr, adjustment) who adopted it from India rather than from Greece. Sir Monier-Williams, T. S. Colebrooke, and Macdonell hold that the Arabs got Algebra from the Hindus. The great Indian leaders in this field, as in astronomy were Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara. The last appears to have invented the radical sign and many algebraic symbols. These men created the conception of a negative quantity, without which algebra would have been impossible; they found the square root of 2, and solved, in the eighth century A.D., indeterminate equations of the second degree that were unknown to Europe until the days of Euler a thousand years later. They expressed their science in poetic form and gave to mathematical problems a grace characteristic to India's Golden Age.
Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1765-1837) wrote: "They (the Hindus) understood well the arithmetic of surd roots; they were aware of the infinite quotient resulting from the division of finite quantities by cipher; they knew the general resolution of equations of the second degree, and had touched upon those of higher denomination, resolving them in the simplest cases, and in those in which the solution happens to be practicable by the method which serves for quadratics; they had attained a general solution of indeterminate problems of the first degree; they had arrived at a method for deriving a multitude of solutions or answers to problems of the second degree from a single answer found tentatively."
"And this, says Colebrooke in conclusion, was as near an approach to a general solution of such problems as was made until the days of La Grange."
(source: Miscellaneous Essays - By H. T. Colebrooke Volume II p. 416 - 418).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:05 PM
"The Indian mind has always had for calculations and the handling of numbers an extraordinary inclination, ease and power, such as no other civilization in history ever possessed to the same degree. So much so that Indian culture regarded the science of numbers as the noblest of its arts."
" Out of a swarm of bees one-fifth part settled on a Kadamba blossom; one-third on a Silindhra flower; three times the difference of those numbers flew to the bloom of a Kutaja. One bee, which remained, hovered about in the air. Tell me, charming woman, the number of bees ...Eight rubies, ten emeralds, and a hundred pearls, which are in thy ear-ring, my beloved, were purchased by me for thee at an equal amount; and the sum of the prices of the three sorts of gem was three less than half a hundred; tell me the price of each, auspicious woman."
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 04:06 PM ]
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Aryabhata (475 A.D. - 550 A.D.) is the first well known Indian mathematician. Born in Kerala, he completed his studies at the university of Nalanda. In the section Ganita (calculations) of his astronomical treatise Aryabhatiya (499 A.D.) he made the fundamental advance in finding the lengths of chords of circles, by using the half chord rather than the full chord method used by Greeks. He gave the value of pi as 3.1416, claiming, for the first time, that it was an approximation. (He gave it in the form that the approximate circumference of a circle of diameter 20000 is 62832.) He also gave methods for extracting square roots, summing arithmetic series, solving indeterminate equations of the type ax - by = c, and also gave what later came to be known as the table of Sines. He also wrote a text book for astronomical calculations, Aryabhatasiddhanta. Even today, this data is used in preparing Hindu calendars (Panchangs). In recognition to his contributions to astronomy and mathematics, India's first satellite was named Aryabhata.
Aryabhatta (475 A.D. - 550 A.D).
Aryabhatta put forward a brilliant thesis with regard to the Earth's rotation on its axis.
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:09 PM
Soviet historians, K. Antonova, G. Bongard-Levin, and G. Kotovsky, authors of A History of India, Moscow, Volume I and II 1973, have spoken highly of scientists of ancient India and their high originality:
"In the ancient period and in the early Middle Ages lived the outstanding mathematicians Aryabhatta (5-6th centuries), Varahamihira (6th century) and Brahmagupta (late 6th and early 7th centuries), whose discoveries anticipated many scientific achievements of modern times. Aryabhata knew that pi equaled 3.1416. The theorem known to us as Pythagoras' theorem was also known at that time. Aryabhata proposed an original solution in whole numbers to the linear equations with two unknowns that closely resembles modern solutions.
"The ancient Indians evolved a system for calculation using zero, which was later taken over by the Arabs (the so-called Arabic numerals) and alter from them by other peoples. The Aryabhatta school was also familiar with sine and cosine.
"Scholars of the Gupta period were already acquainted with the movement of the heavenly bodies, the reasons for eclipses of the Sun and the Moon. Aryabhatta put forward a brilliant thesis with regard to the Earth's rotation on its axis."
"Aryabhatta's follower, Brahmagupta, put forward solutions for a whole series of equations."
"Indian scholars of this period also scored important successes in the sphere of astronomy. Certain astronomical treatises of this period have been preserved, and these siddhantas bear witness to the high level of astronomical knowledge attained by the ancient Indians."
"Brahmagupta (many centuries before Newton) suggested that objects fall to the ground as a result of terrestrial gravity."
"Interesting material relating to astronomy, geography and mineralogy is found in Varahamihira's work Brihat-samhita...."
(source: A History of India - By K. Antonova, G. Bongard-Levin, and G. Kotovsky Moscow, Volume I and II 1973 p. 169-171).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:11 PM
Aryabhatta was a great astronomer of remarkable originality. He is famous for his suggestions of the diurnal revolution of the earth on its own axis. Another important conclusion was about the apparent motion of the sun and the moon. He observes: "The starry vault is fixed: it is the earth which, moving on its own axis, seems to cause the rising and the setting of the planets and stars."
(source: Main Currents in Indian Culture - By S. Natarajan - The Institute of Indo-Middle East Cultural Studies. 1960. p 62-63).
Yavadvipa, the ancient name for Java, to which Sugriva sent search parties looking for Sita, is a Sanskrit name mentioned in the Ramayana. Aryabhatta wrote that when the sun rose in Sri Lanka, it was midday in Yavakoti (Java) and midnight in the Roman land. In the Surya Siddanata reference is also made to the Nagari Yavakoti with golden walls and gates.
(source: India and World Civilization - By D. P. Singhal Pan Macmillan Limited. 1993. p. 323).
Mnemonic and shorthand code letters were used by the Hindu astronomer Aryabhat, who composed his Aryabhatiya in 499 A.D. He answers the question: ¡°How many times does the Earth rotate in a Mahayuga?¡± by the sutra ¨C Ngishi Bunlrukshshru. Its letters count up to 15,82,23,75,200.
The second Aryabhatta (II) has also given such cryptic numberal-alphabets:
Kanadhajhajhujhila = 1599993
Mudayasinadha = 58179
(source: Hinduism: Its Contribution to Science and Civilization - By Prabhakar Balvant Machwe p. 10-14).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:12 PM
Comparing the Hindus and the Greeks as regards their knowledge of algebra, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone says:
"There is no question of the superiority of the Hindus over their rivals in the perfection to which they brought the science. Not only is Aryabhatta superior to Diaphantus (as is shown by his knowledge of the resolution of equations involving several unknown quantities, and in general method of resolving all indeterminate problems of at least the first degree), but he and his successors press hard upon the discoveries of algebraists who lived almost in our own time!"
(source: History of India - By Mountstuart Elphinstone London: John Murray Date of Publication: 1849 p. 131).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:12 PM
The Aryabhatiya was translated into Latin in the 13th century. Through this translation European mathematicians eventually learned methods for calculating the squares of triangles and the volumes of spheres, as well as square and cube roots. He had conceptualized the ideas about the cause of eclipses and the sun being the source of moonlight a thousand years before the Europeans. A revolutionary thinker in many areas, Aryabhata gave the radius of the planetary orbits in terms of the radius of the earth-sun orbit ¨C that is, their orbits as basically their periods of rotation around the sun. He explained that the glow of the moon and planets was the result of reflected sunlight. And with incredible astuteness, he conceptualized the orbits of the planets as ellipses, a thousand years before Kepler reluctantly (he originally preferred circles) came to the same conclusion. His value for the length of the year at 365 days, six hours, twelve minutes, and thirty seconds, however, is a slightly overestimate; the true value is fewer than 365 days and 6 hours.
"Brahmagupta became the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, the foremost mathematical center of ancient India, where great mathematicians such as Varahamihira had worked and built a strong school of mathematical astronomy. The Brahmasphutasidhanta contains 25 chapters, the first ten of which are arranged by topics such as true longitudes of the planets, lunar eclipses, solar eclipses, rising and settings, the moon¡¯s crescent, the moon¡¯s shadow, conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars. A large part of the Brahmasphutsidhanta was translated into Arabic in the early 770s and became the basis of various studies by the astronomer Ya¡¯qub ibn Tariq. In 1126 it was translated into Latin. This translation, along with other associated texts translated from Arabic, provided the basis for the Indo-Arabic stage of Western astronomy. The culmination of southern Indian astronomy was the tradition begun by Madhava in Kerala right before 1400. Madhava was renowned for his derivation of the infinite series for pi and the power series for trigonometric functions. His pupil Paramesvara attempted to correct the lunar parameters by conducting a long series of eclipse observations between 1393 and 1432. In these observations he used an astrolabe, an instrument devised to measure the positions of heavenly bodies, to determine the angle of altitude of the eclipsed body and possibly, the time of the phase of the eclipses."
(source: Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - By Dick Teresi p. 133 - 136).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:14 PM
In the Jewish Encyclopedia Vol. XII p 689, it is noted,
"Aryabhatta, the noted Hindu astronomer who lived about 476 A.D. and who is called the Newton of the country, wrote many works on Algebra and Geometry. He first discovered the rotation of the earth round its own axis. As a Jewish writer says the theory that earth is a sphere revolving round its own axis which immortalized Copernicus, was previously known to the Hindus, who were instructed in the truth of it by Aryabhatta."
Jogesh Chandar Roy (1859-1965) Eminent scholar, educationist, writer, linguist, historian. Owing to his talent was conferred many accolades like D.Litt., Acharya, Bidyanidhi, Roy Bahadur etc. He held that the Vedic sages first admitted that the world is round ohterwise the advent of dawn (Usha) in the hymns, before sunrise becomes meaningless."
(source: Ancient Indian Culture At A Glance - By Swami Tattwananda Calcutta, Oxford Book Co. 1962 p. 126).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:15 PM
Brahmagupta (598 A.D. - 665 A.D.) is renowned for introduction of negative numbers and operations on zero into arithmetic. His main work was Brahmasphutasiddhanta, which was a corrected version of old astronomical treatise Brahmasiddhanta. This work was later translated into Arabic as Sind Hind. He formulated the rule of three and proposed rules for the solution of quadratic and simultaneous equations. He was the first mathematician to treat algebra and arithmetic as two different branches of mathematics. He gave the solution of the indeterminate equation Nx2+1 = y2. He is also the founder of the branch of higher mathematics known as "Numerical Analysis".
The Hindus were aware of the length of diameter and circumference of the earth. According to Brahmagupta and Bhaskarachary the diameter is 7182 miles, some calculate it to be 7905 miles, modern scientists take it to be 7918 miles. For the sake of astronomical experiments the Hindus introduced Sanka Yantra and Ghati Yantra, the apparatus for measurement.
(source: Ancient Indian Culture At A Glance - By Swami Tattwananda Calcutta, Oxford Book Co. 1962 p. 126).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:16 PM
After Brahmagupta, the mathematician of some consequence was Sridhara, who wrote Patiganita Sara, a book on algebra, in 750 A.D. Even Bhaskara refers to his works. After Sridhara, the most celebrated mathematician was Mahaviracharaya or Mahavira. He wrote Ganita Sara Sangraha in 850 A.D., which is the first text book on arithmetic in present day form. He is the only Indian mathematician who has briefly referred to the ellipse (which he called Ayatvrit). The Greeks, by contrast, had studied conic sections in great detail.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:18 PM
Bhaskara (1114 A.D. - 1185 A.D.) or Bhaskaracharaya is the most well known ancient Indian mathematician. He was born in 1114 A.D. at Bijjada Bida (Bijapur, Karnataka) in the Sahyadari Hills. He was the first to declare that any number divided by zero is infinity and that the sum of any number and infinity is also infinity. He is famous for his book Siddhanta Siromani (1150 A.D.). It is divided into four sections - Leelavati (a book on arithmetic), Bijaganita (algebra), Goladhayaya (chapter on sphere - celestial globe), and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). Leelavati contains many interesting problems and was a very popular text book. Bhaskara introduced chakrawal, or the cyclic method, to solve algebraic equations. Six centuries later, European mathematicians like Galois, Euler and Lagrange rediscovered this method and called it "inverse cyclic". Bhaskara can also be called the founder of differential calculus. He gave an example of what is now called "differential coefficient" and the basic idea of what is now called "Rolle's theorem". Unfortunately, later Indian mathematicians did not take any notice of this. Five centuries later, Newton and Leibniz developed this subject. As an astronomer, Bhaskara is renowned for his concept of Tatkalikagati (instantaneous motion).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:19 PM
¡°A Persian translation of the Veeju-Ganitu was made in India,¡± says Mr. Edward Strachey, ¡°in the year 1634, by Ata Oollah Rusidee.¡± The same gentlemen says, ¡°Foizee, in 1587, translated the Leelavatee, a work on arithmetic, mensuration,¡± etc. from which work it appears that ¡°Bhaskara must have written about the end of the 12th century..¡±
¡°We must not,¡± adds Edward Strachey author of Bija ganita; or, The algebra of the Hindus, ¡°be too fastidious in our belief, because we have not found the works of the teachers of Pythagoras; we have access to the wreck only of their ancient learning; but when such traces of a more perfect state of knowledge; we see that the Hindoo algebra 600 years ago, had, in the most interesting parts, some of the most curious modern European discoveries, and when we see, that it was at that time applied to astronomy, we cannot reasonably doubt the originality and the antiquity of mathematical learning among the Hindoos.¡±
(source: A View of the History, Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos - By William Ward (1769-1823) volume II p 329 London 1822).
Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone wrote: "In the Surya Siddhanta is contained a system of trigonometry which not only goes beyond anything known to the Greeks, but involves theorem which were not discovered in Europe till two centuries ago."
(source: Sanskrit Civilization - By G. R. Josyer p. 2).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:20 PM
The discovery of the law of gravitation which immortalized Newton was known in India by Bhaskaracharya long before the birth of Newton. In support of the assumption of this view there is sufficient evidence in a verse in Sidhanta Siromany by its author. Bhaskaracharya holds that when the earth which is endowed with the power of attraction drags with her own power heavy objects on the sky it appears that objects are falling but actually they are not falling, they are only being dragged by the power of attraction of the earth. When everything on the sky drags each other equally where will the earth fall: It is explained that earth, planets, stars, moon, sun etc - each of them is being dragged by the other with its respective power of attraction and as a result of this attraction none of them is removed from its axis.
(source: Ancient Indian Culture At A Glance - By Swami Tattwananda Calcutta, Oxford Book Co. 1962 p. 127).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 04:21 PM
Sir William Wilson Hunter wrote: "The Hindus attained a very high proficiency in arithmetic and algebra independently of any foreign influence." The romance of the composition of Lilavati - the standard Hindu text book on Arithmetic by Bhaskaracharya - is very interesting and charming. It deals not only with the basic elements of the science of arithmetic but also with questions of interest, of barter, of permutations and combinations, and of mensuration. Bhaskaracharya knew the law of gravitation. The Surya Siddhanta is based on a system of trigonometry. Professor Wallace says: "In fact it is founded on a geometrical theorem, which was not known to the geometricians of Europe before the time of Vieta, about two hundred years ago. And it employs the sine of arcs, a thing unknown to the Greeks." The 47th proposition of Book I of Euclid, which is ascribed to Pythagoras was known long ago to the Hindus and must have been learnt from them by Pythagoras.
(source: Indian Culture and the Modern Age - By Dewan Bahadur K. S. Ramaswami Sastri Annamalai University. 1956 p. 67).
Author: mjackson321 Time: 2007-6-20 04:56 PM
wow , changabula, you are really an india expert. you know so much about indian culture and history. how do you do that ? admire you !
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:13 PM
I cannot take any credit for this!
QUOTE:
Originally posted by mjackson321 at 2007-6-20 16:56
wow , changabula, you are really an india expert. you know so much about indian culture and history. how do you do that ? admire you !
No, its not my ideas.
Its only what I find on the net. I am only trying to bring the information together so that its in one place.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:15 PM
Geometry
Geometry, like Astronomy, owes its origin in India to religion, and Grammar and Philosophy too were similarly inspired by religion.
As George Frederick William Thibaut (1848-1914) author of Mathematics in the making in Ancient India, remarked: "The want of some rule by which to fix the right time for the religious altar gave the first impulse to astronomical observations; urged by this the priest, remained watching night after night the advancement of the moon through the circle of the Nakshatras...The laws of phonetics were investigated....the wrong pronunciation of a single letter of the text; grammar and etymology had the task of securing the right understanding of the holy texts. And Thibaut then lays down the principle, which should never be overlooked by Indian historians, that whatever science "is closely connected with the Ancient Indian religion, must be considered as having sprung up among the Indians themselves, and not borrowed from other nations."
Geometry was developed in India from the rules of the construction of the altars. The Black Yajur Veda (V.4.11) enumerates the different shapes in which altars could be constructed and Baudhayana and Apastamba furnish us with full particulars about the shape of these chitis and the bricks which had to be employed for their construction. The Sulva Sutras date from the eighth century before Christ. The geometrical theorem that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides of a rectangular triangle is ascribed by the Greeks to Pythagoras; but it was known in India at least two centuries before, and Pythagoras undoubtedly learnt this rule from India.
(source: Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1875. p. 227 and A History of Civilization in Ancient India Based on Sanscrit Literature - By Romesh Chunder Dutt p. 240-243)
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:16 PM
Vedic altars and sacrificial places were constructed according to strict geometrical principles. The Vedic (altar) had to be stacked in a geometrical form with the sides in fixed proportions, and brick altars had to combine fixed dimensions with a fixed number of bricks. Again, the surface areas were so designed that altars could be increased in size without change of shape, which required considerable geometrical ingenuity.
Geometrical rules found in the Sulvasutras, therefore, refers to the construction of squares and rectangles, the relation of the diagonal to the sides, equivalent rectangles and squares, equivalent circles and squares, conversion, of oblongs into squares and vice versa, and the construction of squares equal to the sum or difference of two squares. In such relations a prior knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem, that the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of squares of the other two sides, is disclosed.
In measurement and construction of altars the priests formulated the Pythagorean theorem (by which the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle equals the sum of the squares of the other side) several hundred years before the birth of Christ.
As every schoolchild knows, the most important theorem in geometry is that of Pythagoras. Yet, there is no evidence that either the statement or the proof was known by the man to whom it is credited. The earliest statement can be found in the Sulbasutra of Baudhyana. Baudhayana has preserved its germination in religious rituals. The fact that ancient Indians knew this theorem was recognized quite early by some European scholars. Among the first was G. Thibaut, a historian of science, who left the impression that in geometry the Pythagoreans were the pupils of the Indians. Scholars unhappy with this idea tried to refute it, thought their refutation was, as Abraham Seidenberg, noted, were no more haughty dismissals.
The Formula known today as the Pythagorean Theorem was first postulated by Indian mathematician - Baudhayana in the 6th century C. E. long before Europe's math whizzies. In 497 C.E. Aryabhatta calculated the value of "pi" as 3.1416. Algebra, trigonometry and the concepts of algorithm, square root originated in India. Quadratic equations were propounded by Sridharacharya in the 11th century.
The largest number used by Greeks and Romans were 106, whereas Indians used numbers as big as 10 to the power of 53, as early as 5000 BCE. Even geometry called Rekha Ganita in ancient India, was applied to draft mandalas for architectural purposes and for creating temple motifs.
wpe10.jpg (2218 bytes)Professor H. G. Rawlinson writes: " It is more likely that Pythagoras was influenced by India than by Egypt. Almost all the theories, religions, philosophical and mathematical taught by the Pythagoreans, were known in India in the sixth century B.C., and the Pythagoreans, like the Jains and the Buddhists, refrained from the destruction of life and eating meat and regarded certain vegetables such as beans as taboo" "It seems that the so-called Pythagorean theorem of the quadrature of the hypotenuse was already known to the Indians in the older Vedic times, and thus before Pythagoras
(source: Legacy of India 1937, p. 5).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 07:17 PM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:18 PM
Romesh Chunder Dutt, the famous Indian historian holds that the world is indebted to the Hindus for Geometry and not to the Greeks.
(source: Ancient Indian Culture At A Glance - By Swami Tattwananda Calcutta, Oxford Book Co. 1962 p. 124).
Professor Maurice Winternitz is of the same opinion: "As regards Pythagoras, it seems to me very probable that he became acquainted with Indian doctrines in Persia." (Visvabharati Quarterly Feb. 1937, p. 8).
It is also the view of Sir William Jones (Works, iii. 236), Colebrooke (Miscellaneous Essays, i. 436 ff.). Schroeder (Pythagoras und die Inder), Garbe (Philosophy of Ancient India, pp. 39 ff), Hopkins (Religions of India, p. 559 and 560) and Macdonell (Sanskrit Literature, p. 422).
(source: Eastern Religions & Western Thought - By S. Radhakrishnan ISBN: 0195624564 p. 143).
Ludwig von Schröder German philosopher, author of the book Pythagoras und die Inder (Pythagoras and the Indians), published in 1884, he argued that Pythagoras had been influenced by the Samkhya school of thought, the most prominent branch of the Indic philosophy next to Vedanta.
(source: In Search of The Cradle of Civilization: : New Light on Ancient India - By Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak & David Frawley p. 252).
" Nearly all the philosophical and mathematical doctrines attributed to Pythagoras are derived from India."
Sir William Temple, (1628-1699) English statesman and diplomat, in his Essay upon the Ancient and Modern Learning (1690) he wrote:
"From these famous Indians, it seems most probable that Pythagoras learned, and transported into Greece and Italy, the greatest part of his natural and moral philosophy, rather than from the Aegyptians...Nor does it seem unlikely that the Aegyptians themselves might have drawn much of their learning from the Indians..long before..Lycurgus, who likewise traveled to India, brought from thence also the chief principles of his laws."
Temple's ideas remained in isolation in his period until they were revived in the middle of the 18th century when a battle raged between the 'believers' and the 'infidels' on the question of the value of Mosaic interpretation of history.
(source: Much Maligned Monsters: A History of European Reactions to Indian Art - By Partha Mitter p. 191).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:19 PM
Aryabhata, found the area of a triangle, a trapezium and a circle, and calculated the value of "pi" ( the relation of diameter to circumference in a circle) at 3.1416 - a figure not equaled in accuracy until the days of Purbach (1423-61) in Europe. Bhaskara anticipated the differential calculus, Aryabhata drew up a table of sines, and the Surya Siddhanta provided a system of trigonometry more advance than anything known to the Greeks. He had tabulated the sine function (unknown in Greece) for every 33/4º of arc from 33/4º to 90º. By 670 the system had reached northern Mesopotamia, where the Nestorian bishop Severus Sebokht praised its Hindu inventors as discoverers of things more ingenious than those of the Greeks. Muslims began the acquisition of foreign learning, and, by the time of the Caliph al-Mansur (d. 775), such Indian and Persian astronomical material as the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta and the Shah's Tables had been translated into Arabic.
A 3,000-year-old ritual was resurrected at Panjal in Kerala in April 1975. A 12-day Agnicayana, or Atiratra, was performed on a bird-shaped altar of a thousand bricks. The altar was a geometricians' delight.
The area of each layer of the altar, for instance, was seven and a half times a square purusa, the size of the sacrificer or the Yajamana. A fifth of the size of the Yajamana, panchami, was the basic unit of the bricks.
The rules for measurement and construction of sacrificial altars are found in the Sulba Sutras, the earliest documents of geometry in India. Sulba means cord. Of the various Sulba Sutras, those of Baudhayana, Apastamba and Katyayana are best known. The mathematical knowledge in the texts comes from the creation of altars or bricks in various shapes-rhombus, isosceles trapezium, square, rectangle, isosceles right-angled triangle or circle. A square-shaped altar sometimes had to become circular without any change in the area or vice-versa. Obviously, the authors of the Sulba texts knew the value of pi, which is the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle.
The theory of right angles is attributed to Greek philosopher Pythagoras (6th century BC). But Baudhayana mentions that the diagonal of a rectangle produces by itself both (the areas) produced separately by its two sides. In simple terms, this means that the square of the diagonal is equal to the sum of the squares of two sides. In the next rule he says that the rectangles for which the theorem is true have the sides as 3 and 4 [32+42=52], 12 and 5, 15 and 8, 7 and 24, 12 and 35, 15 and 36. The theorem is given in all the Sulba Sutras.
Eminent mathematician A. K. Bag, he says tackling of mathematical and geometrical problems with rational numbers and irrational numbers [such as square-root of 2] was a unique achievement of early Indians. They even had technical terms such as dvikarani, trikarani and panchakarani (for square-roots of 2, 3 and 5) and so on and gave their values to a high degree of approximation.
The mathematics in Sulba texts also involves a highly sophisticated brick technology. Ten types of bricks were used to build the altar at Panjal.
Sir Monier-Williams says: "To the Hindus is due the invention of algebra and geometry, and their application to astronomy."
(source: Indian Wisdom - By Monier Williams p. 185).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:20 PM
Count Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Bjornstjerna author of Theogony of the Hindus says: "We find in Ayeen-Akbari, a journal of the Emperor Akbar, that the Hindus of former times assumed the diameter of a circle to be to its periphery as 1,250 to 3,927. The ratio of 1,250 to 3,927 is a very close approximation to the quandrature of a circle, and differs very little form that given by Metius of 113 to 355. In order to obtain the result thus found by the Brahmans, even in the most elementary and simplest way, it is necessary to inscribe in a circle a poligon of 768 sides, an operation, which cannot be performed arithmetically without the knowledge of some peculiar properties of this curved line, and at least an extraction of the square root of the ninth power, each to ten places of decimals. The Greeks and Arabs have not given anything so approximate."
Professor Wallace says: "However ancient a book may be in which a system of trigonometry occurs, we may be assured it was not written in the infancy of the science. Geometry must have been known in India long before the writing of Surya Siddanata." which is supposed by the Europeans to have been written before 2000 B. C. E.
(source: Sanskrit Civilization - By G. R. Josyer p. 2-3).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:21 PM
Influence of Hindu Geometry on Greeks:
In his monumental work, The origin of mathematics, Archive for History of Exact Sciences. vol. 18, 301-342, Abraham Seidenberg remarks: "By examining the evidence in the Shatapatha Brahmana, we now know that Indian geometry predates Greek geometry by centuries. For example, the earth was represented by a circular altar and the heavens were represented by a square altar and the ritual consisted of converting the circle into a square of an identical area. There we see the beginnings of geometry! Two aspects of the 'Pythagoras' theorem are described in the Vedic literature. One aspect is purely algebraic that presents numbers a, b, c for which the sum of the squares of the first two equals the square of the third. The second is the geometric, according to which the sum of the areas of two square areas of different size is equal to another square. The Babylonians knew the algebraic aspect of this theorem as early as 1700 BCE, but they did not seem to know the geometric aspect. The Shatapatha Brahmana, which precedes the age of Pythagoras, knows both aspects. Therefore, the Indians could not have learnt it from the Old-Babylonians or the Greeks, who claim to have rediscovered the result only with Pythagoras. India is thus the cradle of the knowledge of geometry and mathematics."
So, contrary to the European belief that Hindus were influenced by the Greek geometry, the facts prove that it is the other way round. Most of the aspects of planar geometry described by Euclid and other Greek mathematicians were already known to Indians at least 2500 years before the Greeks. In fact, there are proofs which hint towards the fact Greeks were influenced by the ancient Hindu Mathematics and Geometry. Bibhuti Bhushan Datta in his book "Ancient Hindu Geometry" states:
"...One who was well versed in that science was called in ancient India as samkhyajna (the expert of numbers), parimanajna (the expert in measuring), sama-sutra-niranchaka (Uinform-rope-stretcher), Shulba-vid (the expert in Shulba) and Shulba-pariprcchaka (the inquirer into the Shulba). Of these term, viz, 'sama-sutra-niranchaka' perhaps deserves more particular notice. For we find an almost identical term, 'harpedonaptae' (rope-stretcher) appearing in the writings of the Greek Democritos (c. 440 BC). It seems to be an instance of Hindu influence on Greek geometry. For the idea in that Greek term is neither of the Greeks nor of their acknowledged teachers in the science of geometry, the Egyptians, but it is characteristically of Hindu origin." The English word 'Geometry' has a Greek root which itself is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Jyamiti'. In Sanskrit 'Jya' means an arc or curve and 'Miti' means correct perception or measurement.
The Sulba Sutras, however, date from about the eighth century B.C. E. and Dr. Thibault has shown that the geometrical theorem of the 47th proposition, Book I, which tradition ascribes to Pythagoras, was solved by the Hindus at least two centuries earlier, thus confirming the conclusion of Von Schroeder that the Greek philosopher owed his inspiration to India.
(source: History of Hindu Chemistry, Volume I p. XXIV ).
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A. L. Basham, foremost authority on ancient India, writes in The Wonder That Was India:
"Medieval Indian mathematicians, such as Brahmagupta (seventh century), Mahavira (ninth century), and Bhaskara (twelfth century), made several discoveries which in Europe were not known until the Renaissance or later. They understood the import of positive and negative quantities, evolved sound systems of extracting square and cube roots, and could solve quadratic and certain types of indeterminate equations." Mahavira's most noteworthy contribution is his treatment of fractions for the first time and his rule for dividing one fraction by another, which did not appear in Europe until the 16th century.
B. B. Dutta writes: "The use of symbols-letters of the alphabet to denote unknowns, and equations are the foundations of the science of algebra. The Hindus were the first to make systematic use of the letters of the alphabet to denote unknowns. They were also the first to classify and make a detailed study of equations. Thus they may be said to have given birth to the modern science of algebra."
The great Indian mathematician Bhaskaracharya (1150 C.E.) produced extensive treatises on both plane and spherical trigonometry and algebra, and his works contain remarkable solutions of problems which were not discovered in Europe until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He preceded Newton by over 500 years in the discovery of the principles of differential calculus.
A. L. Basham writes further, "The mathematical implications of zero (sunya) and infinity, never more than vaguely realized by classical authorities, were fully understood in medieval India. Earlier mathematicians had taught that X/0 = X, but Bhaskara proved the contrary. He also established mathematically what had been recognized in Indian theology at least a millennium earlier: that infinity, however divided, remains infinite, represented by the equation /X = ."
In the 14th century, Madhava, isolated in South India, developed a power series for the arc tangent function, apparently without the use of calculus, allowing the calculation of to any number of decimal places (since arc tan 1 = /4). Whether he accomplished this by inventing a system as good as calculus or without the aid of calculus; either way it is astonishing. Stanley Wolpert says: " An untutored Kerala mathematician named Madhava developed his own system of calculus, based on his knowledge of trigonometry around A.D. 1500, more than a century before either Newton or Liebnitz.
(source: An Introduction to India - By Stanley Wolpert p. 195).
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By the fifteenth century C. E. use of the new mathematical concepts from India had spread all over Europe to Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, among others. A. L. Basham states also that
"The debt of the Western world to India in this respect [the field of mathematics] cannot be overestimated. Most of the great discoveries and inventions of which Europe is so proud would have been impossible without a developed system of mathematics, and this in turn would have been impossible if Europe had been shackled by the unwieldy system of Roman numerals. The unknown man who devised the new system was, from the world's point of view, after the Buddha, the most important son of India. His achievement, though easily taken for granted, was the work of an analytical mind of the first order, and he deserves much more honor than he has so far received."
Carl Friedrich Gauss ( 1777-1855), German scientist and mathematician, was considered as the "prince of mathematics. He is frequently called the founder of modern mathematics, who also studied Sanskrit.
Gauss "was said to have lamented that Archimedes in the third century B.C. E. had failed to foresee the Indian system of numeration; how much more advanced science would have been."
Unfortunately, Eurocentrism has effectively concealed from the common man the fact that we owe much in the way of mathematics to ancient India.
In ancient India, mathematics served as a bridge between understanding material reality and the spiritual conception. Vedic mathematics differs profoundly from Greek mathematics in that knowledge for its own sake (for its aesthetic satisfaction) did not appeal to the Indian mind. The mathematics of the Vedas lacks the cold, clear, geometric precision of the West; rather, it is cloaked in the poetic language which so distinguishes the East. Vedic mathematicians strongly felt that every discipline must have a purpose, and believed that the ultimate goal of life was to achieve self-realization and love of God and thereby be released from the cycle of birth and death.
After this period, India was repeatedly raided by muslims and other rulers and there was a lull in scientific research. Industrial revolution and Renaissance passed India by. Before Ramanujan, the only noteworthy mathematician was Sawai Jai Singh II, who founded the present city of Jaipur in 1727 A.D. This Hindu king was a great patron of mathematicians and astronomers. He is known for building observatories (Jantar Mantar) at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura. Among the instruments he designed himself are Samrat Yantra, Ram Yantra and Jai Parkash.
More recently, intuitive Indian mathematical genius Srinivas Ramanujan (1887-1920), a friend to all numbers, was invited to Cambridge by Prof. G. H. Hardy, who recognized his brilliance at the sight of his first equation solution. Julian Huxley called Ramanujan "the greatest mathematician of the century." At the age of thirty he developed a formula for partitioning any natural number, which led to the solving of the Waring problem, expressing an integer as the sum of squares, cubes, or higher powers of a few integers. One day Hardy complained about the cab number that brought him to visit Ramanujan, "1729" as a dull number. Ramanujan responded instantly, " No Hardy, 1729 is a wonderful number! That is the only number which is the sum of two different sets of cubes, 1 and 12, and 9 and 10."
(source: An Introduction to India - By Stanley Wolpert p. 195).
Mountstuart Elphinstone wrote: "Their geometrical skill is shown among other forms by their demonstrations of various properties of triangles, especially one which expresses the area in the terms of the three sides, and was unknown in Europe till published by Clavius, and by their knowledge of the proportions of the radius to the circumference of a circle, which they express in a mode peculiar to themselves, by applying one measure and one unit to the radius and circumference. This proportion, which is confirmed by the most approved labors of Europeans, was not known out of India until modern times!"
(source: History of India - By Mountstuart Elphinstone London: John Murray Date of Publication: 1849 p. 130).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 07:26 PM ]
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Srinivas Ramanujan: A Life of the Genius
Ramanujan is one of India´s great intellectual heroes, a mathematical genius who attributed his brilliance to a personal relationship with a Hindu Goddess - Namagiri. His work has been used to help unravel knots as varied as polymer chemistry and cancer, yet how he arrived at this theorems is still unknown. By age twelve he had mastered trigonometry so completely that he was inventing sophisticated theorems that astonished teachers. Mathematicians have mined his theorems ever since. They've figured out how to prove them. They've put them to use. Only recently, a lost bundle of his notebooks turned up in a Cambridge library. That set mathematics off on a whole new voyage of discovery. And where did all this unproven truth come from? Ramanujan was quick to tell us. He simply prayed to Sarasvathi, the Goddess of Learning, and she informed him.
His twenty-one major mathematical papers are still being plumbed for their secrets, and many of his ideas are used today in cosmology and computer science. The unsettling thing is, none of us can find any better way to explain the magnitude of his eerie brilliance.
(source: http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi495.htm ) John H. Lienhard (source: The Man Who Knew Infinity: A Life of the Genius Ramanujan - by Robert Kanigel)..(source: Ramanujan and Computing the Mathematical face of God).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:29 PM
Vedic Mathematics
"Vedic Mathematics" is the name given to the ancient system of mathematics, or, to be precise, a unique technique of calculations based on simple rules and principles, with which any mathematical problem ¡ª be it arithmetic, algebra, geometry or trigonometry ¡ª can be solved. The system is based on 16 Vedic sutras or aphorisms, which are actually word-formulae describing natural ways of solving a whole range of mathematical problems. Some examples of sutras are "By one more than the one before", "All from 9 & the last from 10", and "Vertically & Crosswise". These 16 one-line formulae originally written in Sanskrit, which can be easily memorized, enables one to solve long mathematical problems quickly.
Born in the Vedic Age, but buried under centuries of debris, this remarkable system of calculation was deciphered towards the beginning of the 20th century, when there was a great interest in ancient Sanskrit texts, especially in Europe. However, certain texts called Ganita Sutras, which contained mathematical deductions, were ignored, because no one could find any mathematics in them. These texts, it's believed, bore the germs of what we now know as Vedic Mathematics.
Vedic math was rediscovered from the ancient Indian scriptures between 1911 and 1918 by Sri Bharati Krishna Tirthaji (1884-1960), a scholar of Sanskrit, Mathematics, History and Philosophy. He studied these ancient texts for years, and after careful investigation was able to reconstruct a series of mathematical formulae called sutras.
Bharati Krishna Tirthaji, who was also the former Shankaracharya of Puri, India, delved into the ancient Vedic texts and established the techniques of this system in his pioneering work ¡ª Vedic Mathematics (1965), which is considered the starting point for all work on Vedic math. It is said that after Bharati Krishna's original 16 volumes of work expounding the Vedic system were lost, in his final years he wrote this single volume, which was published five years after his death.
(source: Vedic Mathematics - about.com). For more refer to chapter on Glimpses VIII and Vedic Math websites).
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The Indic Mathematical tradition
Jean-Étienne Montucla (1725-1799) French author of Histoire des mathematiques (1798):
¡°The ingenious number-system, which serves as the basis for modern arithmetic, was used by the Arabs long before it reached Europe . It would be a mistake, however, to believe that this invention is Arabic. There is a great deal of evidence, much of it provided by the Arabs themselves that this arithmetic originated in India .¡± [Montucla, I, p. 375J.
John Walls (1616-1703) referred to the nine numerals as Indian figures [Wallis (1695), p. 10]
Cataneo (1546) le noue figure de gli Indi, ¡°the nine figures from India ¡±. [Smith and Karpinski (1911), p.3
Willichius (1540) talks of Zyphrae! Nice, ¡°Indian figures¡±. [Smith and Karpinski (1911) p. 3]
The Crafte of Nombrynge (c. 1350), the oldest known English arithmetical tract: II fforthermore ye most vndirstonde that in this craft ben vsed teen figurys, as here bene writen for esampul 098 ^ 654321... in the quych we vse teen figwys of Inde. Questio II why Zen figurys of Inde? Soiucio. For as I have sayd afore thei werefondefrrst in Inde. [D. E. Smith (1909).
Petrus of Dada (1291) wrote a commentary on a work entitled Algorismus by Sacrobosco (John of Halifax, c. 1240), in which he says the following (which contains a mathematical error): Non enim omnis numerus per quascumquefiguras Indorum repraesentatur ¡°Not every number can be represented in Indian figures¡±. [Curtze (1.897), p. 25.
Around the year 1252, Byzantine monk Maximus Planudes (1260¡ª1310) composed a work entitled Logistike Indike (¡°Indian Arithmetic¡±) in Greek, or even Psephophoria kata Indos (¡°The Indian way of counting¡±), where he explains the following: ¡°There are only nine figures.
These are: 123456789 - [figures given in their Eastern Arabic form]
A sign known as tziphra can be added to these, which, according to the Indians, means ¡®nothing¡¯. The nine figures themselves are Indian, and tziphra is written thus: 0¡±. [B. N., Pans. Ancien Fonds grec, Ms 2428, f¡± 186 r¡±]
Around 1240, Alexandre de Ville-Dieu composed a manual in verse on written calculation (algorism). Its title was Carmen de Algorismo, and it began with the following two lines: Haec algorismus ars praesens dicitur, in qua Talibus Indorumfruimur bis quinquefiguris.
¡°Algorism is the art by which at present we use those Indian figures, which number two times five¡±. [Smith and Karpinski (1911), p. 11]
In 1202, Leonard of Pisa (known as Fibonacci), after voyages that took him to the Near East and Northern Africa, and in particular to Bejaia (now in Algeria), wrote a tract on arithmetic entitled Liber Abaci (¡°a tract about the abacus¡±), in which he explains the following:
¡°Cum genitor meus a patria publicus scriba in duana bugee pro pisanis mercatoribus ad earn confluentibus preesset, me in pueritia mea ad se uenire faciens, inspecta utilitate el cornmoditate fiutura, ibi me studio abaci per aliquot dies stare uoluit et doceri. Vbi a mirabii magisterio in arte per nouem figuras Indorum introductus. . . Novem figurae Indorum hae sun!: cum his itaque novemfiguris. et turn hoc signo o. Quod arabice zephirum appellatur, scribitur qui libel numerus: ¡°My father was a public scribe of Bejaia, where he worked for his country in Customs, defending the interests of Pisan merchants who made their fortune there. He made me learn how to use the abacus when I was still a child because he saw how I would benefit from this in later life. In this way I learned the art of counting using the nine Indian figures... The nine Indian figures are as follows:
987654321 - [figures given in contemporary European cursive form].
¡°That is why, with these nine numerals, and with this sign 0, called zephirum in Arab, one writes all the numbers one wishes.¡±[Boncompagni (1857), vol.1]
Rabbi Abraham Ben MeIr Ben Ezra (1092¡ª1167), after a long voyage to the East and a period spent in Italy , wrote a work in Hebrew entitled: Sefer ha mispar (¡°Number Book¡±), where he explains the basic rules of written calculation. He uses the first nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet to represent the nine units. He represents zero by a little circle and gives it the Hebrew name of galgal (¡°wheel¡±), or, more frequently, sfra (¡°void¡±) from the corresponding Arabic word. However, all he did was adapt the Indian system to the first nine Hebrew letters (which he naturally had used since his childhood).
In the introduction, he provides some graphic variations of the figures, making it clear that they are of Indian origin, after having explained the place-value system: ¡°That is how the learned men of India were able to represent any number using nine shapes which they fashioned themselves specifically to symbolize the nine units.¡± (Silberberg (1895), p.2: Smith and Ginsburg (1918): Steinschneider (1893).
Around the same time, John of Seville began his Liberalgoarismi de practica arismetrice (¡°Book of Algoarismi on practical arithmetic¡±) with the following:
¡°Numerus est unitatum cot/echo, quae qua in infinitum progredilur (multitudo enim crescit in infinitum), ideo a peritissimis Indis sub quibusdam regulis et certis lirnitibus infinita numerositas coarcatur, Ut de infinitis dfinita disciplina traderetur etfuga subtilium rerum sub alicuius artis certissima Jege ten eretur:
¡°A number is a collection of units, and because the collection is infinite (for multiplication can continue indefinitely), the Indians ingeniously enclosed this infinite multiplicity within certain rules and limits so that infinity could be scientifically defined: these strict rules enabled them to pin down this subtle concept.
[B. N., Paris, Ms. lat. 16 202, p 51: Boncompagni (1857), vol. I, p. 261
C. 1143, Robert of Chester wrote a work entitled: Algoritmi de numero Indorum (¡°Algoritmi: Indian figures¡±), which is simply a translation of an Arabic work about Indian arithmetic. [Karpinski (1915); Wallis (1685). p. 121
C. 1140, Bishop Raymond of Toledo gave his patronage to a work written by the converted Jew Juan de Luna and archdeacon Domingo Gondisalvo: the Liber Algorismi de numero Indorum (¡°Book of Algorismi of Indian figures) which is simply a translation into a Spanish and Latin version of an Arabic tract on Indian arithmetic. [Boncompagni (1857), vol. 11
C. 1130, Adelard of Bath wrote a work entitled: Algoritmi de numero Indorum (¡°Algoritmi: of Indian figures¡±), which is simply a translation of an Arabic tract about Indian calculation. [Boncompagni (1857), vol. Ii
C. 1125, The Benedictine chronicler William of Malmesbury wrote De gestis regum Anglorum, in which he related that the Arabs adopted the Indian figures and transported them to the countries they conquered, particularly Spain. He goes on to explain that the monk Gerbert of Aurillac, who was to become Pope Sylvester II (who died in 1003) and who was immortalized for restoring sciences in Europe, studied in either Seville or Cordoba , where he learned about Indian figures and their uses and later contributed to their circulation in the Christian countries of the West.
L Malmesbury (1596), f¡± 36 r¡¯; Woepcke (1857), p. 35J
Written in 976 in the convent of Albelda (near the town of Logroño , in the north of Spain ) by a monk named Vigila, the Coda Vigilanus contains the nine numerals in question, but not zero. The scribe clearly indicates in the text that the figures are of Indian origin:
¡°Item de figuels aritmetice. Scire debemus Indos subtilissimum ingenium habere et ceteras gentes eis in arithmetica et geometrica et ceteris liberalibu.c disciplinis concedere. Et hoc manif¨¨stum at in novem figuris, quibus quibus designant unum quenque gradum cuiu.slibetgradus. Quatrum hec sunt forma:
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.
¡°The same applies to arithmetical figures. It should be noted that the Indians have an extremely subtle intelligence, and when it comes to arithmetic, geometry and other such advanced disciplines, other ideas must make way for theirs. The best proof of this is the nine figures with which they represent each number no matter how high. This is how the figures look:
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
(source: The Indic Mathematical tradition - By Kosla Vepa).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:31 PM
Grammar
"Probably in no other single sphere have Western scholars been so indebted to traditional India as in that of grammar. "
Sir William Wilson Hunter has observed:
" The grammar of Panini stands supreme among the grammars of the world, alike for its precision of statement, and for its thorough analysis of the roots of the language and of the formative principles of words. By employing an algebraic terminology it attains a sharp succinctness unrivalled in brevity, but at times enigmatical. It arranges, in logical harmony, the whole phenomena which the Sanskrit language presents, and stands forth as one of the most splendid achievements of human invention and industry. So elaborate is the structure, that doubts have arisen whether its complex rules of formation and phonetic change, its polysyllabic derivatives, its ten conjugations with their multiform aorists and long array of tenses, could ever have been the spoken language of a people."
(source: The Indian Empire - By Sir William Wilson Hunter p. 142).
For more refer to chapter on Greater India: Suvarnabhumi and Sacred Angkor
The science of linguistics owes much to the brilliant ancient Sanskrit grammarian Panini, whose 4th century B.C. Ashtadhyayi ("Eight Chapters") was the first scientific analysis of any alphabet.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:31 PM
Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) American linguist and author of Language, published in 1933) characterization of Panini's Astadhyayi ("The Eight Books")
"as one of the greatest monuments of human intelligence is by no means an exaggeration; no one who has had even a small acquaintance with that most remarkable book could fail to agree. In some four thousand sutras or aphorisms - some of them no more than a single syllable in length - Panini sums up the grammar not only of his own spoken language, but of that of the Vedic period as well. The work is the more remarkable when we consider that the author did not write it down but rather worked it all out of his head, as it were. Panini's disciples committed the work to memory and in turn passed it on in the same manner to their disciples; and though the Astadhayayi has long since been committed to writing, rote memorization of the work, with several of the more important commentaries, is still the approved method of studying grammar in India today, as indeed is true of most learning of the traditional culture."
While in the classical world scholars were dealing with language in a somewhat metaphysical way, the Indians were telling us what their language actually was, how it worked, and how it was put together. The methods and techniques for describing the structure of Sanskrit which we find in Panini have not been substantially bettered to this day in modern linguistic theory and practice. We today employ many devices in describing languages that were already known to Panini's first two commentators. The concept of "zero" which in mathematics is attributed to India, finds its place also in linguistics.
"It was in India, however, that there rose a body of knowledge which was destined to revolutionize European ideas about language. The Hindu grammar taught Europeans to analyze speech forms; when one compared the constituent parts, the resemblances, which hitherto had been vaguely recognized, could be set forth with certainty and precision."
(source: Traditional India - edited by O. L. Chavarria-Aguilar refer to chapter on Grammar - By Leonard Bloomfield Hall - Place of Publication: Englewood Cliffs, NJ Date of Publication: 1964 p. 109-113).
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Ancient Indian work on grammar was not only objective, systematic, and brilliant than that done in Greece or Rome but is illustrative of their scientific methods of analysis. Although the date of Panini's grammar, the Ashtadhyayi, ("Eight Chapters"), which comprises about four thousand sutras or aphorisitic rules, is uncertain, it is the earliest extant scientific grammar in the world, having written no later than the fourth century B.C. But prior grammatical analysis is clearly evidenced by the fact that Panini himself mentions over sixty predecessors in the field. For example, the sounds represented by the letters of the alphabet had been properly arranged, vowels and diphthongs separated from mutes, semivowels, and sibilants, and the sounds had been grouped into guttturals, palatals, cerebrals, dentals, and labials.
Panini and other grammarians, especially Katyayana and Patanjali, carried the work much further, and by the middle of the second century B.C. Sanskrit had attained a stereotyped form which remained unaltered for centuries. Whilst Greek grammar tended to be logical, philosophical and syntactical, Indian grammar was the result of an empirical investigation of language done with the objectivity of an anatomist dissecting a body.
At a very early date India began to trace the roots, history, relations and combinations of words. By the fourth century B.C. she had created for herself the science of grammar, and produced probably the greatest of all known grammarians, Panini. The studies of Panini, Patanjali and Bhartrihari laid the foundations of philology; and that fascinating science of verbal genetics owed almost its life in modern times to the rediscovery of Sanskrit.
It is the discovery of Sanskrit by the West and the study of Indian methods of analysis that revolutionized Western studies of language and laid the foundation of comparative philology. Panini's Sanskrit grammar, produced in about 300 B.C. E. is the shortest and the fullest grammar in the world. Until the mid 19th century, in fact, Panini's great grammar remained the best standard guide to the study of Sanskrit, an inspiration to students of language everywhere. Even Otto Bohtlingk and Rudolf Roth, whose monumental Sanskrit-German Dictionary, called the "St Petersburg Lexicon" because it was published by the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences from 1852 to 1875, owed a great debt to Panini's remarkable "Eight Chapters."
(source: An Introduction to India - By Stanley Wolpert p. 196).
According to Sir Monier-Williams (Eng. Sanskrit scholar 1819-1899):
"The Panini grammar reflects the wondrous capacity of the human brain, which till today no other country has been able to produce except India."
(source: Hindu Superiority - By Har Bilas Sarda p. 229).
(For more refer to Electronic Panini - http://sanskrit.gde.to/all_pdf/aShTAdhyAyI.pdf
and Sanskrit Learning Tools - http://sanskrit.gde.to/learning_tools/learning_tools.html and A Software on Sanskrit Grammar based on Panini's Sutras - http://www.taralabalu.org/panini/greetings.htm).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 07:33 PM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:34 PM
Linguistics
'Sanskrt' is not a language but a linguistic process.
A L Basham says that the very science of phonetics arose in Europe only after the discovery' of Sanskrt and its grammar by the West. (Paanini, the seminal thinker, constructed the Ashtaadhyaayee - "the Eight Matters to be Studied" in the 5th cent. BC). His 'structures' constitute a scientific presentation of grammar, phonetics, etymology, linguistics, etc. all rolled into one, not excluding the implied "sociology" of listening to, collecting and statistically evaluating forms of usage in the then spoken language. But, except for scholars like Naom Chomsky, no one working in linguistics overtly acknowledges this debt and Paanini has yet to be admitted to the pantheon of science of which Archimedes, Euclid, Socrates, Plato, Newton, Einstein, the Quantum Mechanicists, etc. are the present members. Paanini's work is of immense importance to modern research in the forms of human speech and, possibly, in the mapping of the spread of families of languages (not just of the Indo-European). Such mapping is being currently carried out in the Americas, very likely without the help of Paanini's ideas, in tracing the waves of migration of people that were to become "Red Indians" towards the end of the last Ice Age, from Northeastern Asia, across the Bering Strait, spreading southwards and across the land as far as Tierra del Fuego (the "Land of Fire"; "tierra" = dharaa, by the way) at the southern tip of South America.
One among the major contributions of the Indian Ancients is the arrangement of letters in the scripts (aksharamalas) of major Indian languages (Urdu excepted). That and the mode of having one unique symbol per syllable (and the mode of formation of compound consonants) whereby, with every letter having a fixed and invariable pronunciation, the script "is adapted to the expression of every gradation of sound" (source: Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language - By Sir Monier-Williams 1857).
(source: Whence and Whither of Indian Science - Can we integrate with our past and carry on from there? ¨C Contributed by S. N. Balasubrahmanyam - (Retd) Professor of Organic Chemistry at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:35 PM
Science
The revolutionary contents of the Vedas
For a quick glimpse at what unsung surprises may lie in the Vedas, let us consider these renditions from the Yajur-veda and Atharva-veda, for instance.
" O disciple, a student in the science of government, sail in oceans in steamers, fly in the air in airplanes, know God the creator through the Vedas, control thy breath through yoga, through astronomy know the functions of day and night, know all the Vedas, Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva, by means of their constituent parts."
" Through astronomy, geography, and geology, go thou to all the different countries of the world under the sun. Mayest thou attain through good preaching to statesmanship and artisanship, through medical science obtain knowledge of all medicinal plants, through hydrostatics learn the different uses of water, through electricity understand the working of ever lustrous lightening. Carry out my instructions willingly." (Yajur-veda 6.21).
" O royal skilled engineer, construct sea-boats, propelled on water by our experts, and airplanes, moving and flying upward, after the clouds that reside in the mid-region, that fly as the boats move on the sea, that fly high over and below the watery clouds. Be thou, thereby, prosperous in this world created by the Omnipresent God, and flier in both air and lightning." (Yajur-veda 10.19).
" The atomic energy fissions the ninety-nine elements, covering its path by the bombardments of neutrons without let or hindrance. Desirous of stalking the head, ie. The chief part of the swift power, hidden in the mass of molecular adjustments of the elements, this atomic energy approaches it in the very act of fissioning it by the above-noted bombardment. Herein, verily the scientists know the similar hidden striking force of the rays of the sun working in the orbit of the moon." (Atharva-veda 20.41.1-3).
(source: Searching for Vedic India - By Devamitra Swami p. 155 - 157).
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Medieval Arab scholar Sa'id ibn Ahmad al-Andalusi (1029-1070) wrote in his Tabaqat al-'umam, one of the earliest books on history of sciences:
"The first nation to have cultivated science is India. ... India is known for the wisdom of its people. Over many centuries, all the kings of the past have recognized the ability of the Indians in all the branches of knowledge".
"The kings of China have stated that the kings of the world are five in number and all the people of the world are their subjects. They mentioned the king of China, the king of India, the king of the Turks, the king of the Persians, and the king of the Romans.
"... They referred to the king of India as the "king of wisdom" because of the Indians' careful treatment of 'ulum [sciences] and all the branches of knowledge.
"The Indians, known to all nations for many centuries, are the metal [essence] of wisdom, the source of fairness and objectivity. They are people of sublime pensiveness, universal apologues, and useful and rare inventions.
"... To their credit the Indians have made great strides in the study of numbers and of geometry. They have acquired immense information and reached the zenith in their knowledge of the movements of the stars [astronomy] ... After all that they have surpassed all other peoples in their knowledge of medical sciences ..."
In his book al-Andalusi goes on to give details of several Indian texts on astronomy and tells us that the Arab scholars used them in preparing their own almanacs.
" Ancient Indian theories lacked an empirical base, but they were brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, and in a large measure, agreed with the discoveries of modern physics."
(source: In the eleventh-century, an important manuscript titled The Categories of Nations was authored in Arabic by Said al-Andalusi, who was a prolific author and in the powerful position of a judge for the king in Muslim Spain. A translation and annotation of this was done S.I. Salem and Alok Kumar and published by University of Texas Press: ¡°Science in the Medieval World¡±. This is the first English translation of this eleventh-century manuscript. Quotes are from Chapter V: ¡°Science in India¡±).
- A. L. Basham, Australian Indologist
Two system of Indian thought propound physical theories suggestively similar to those of Greece. Kanada, founder of the Vaishehika philosophy, held that the world was composed of atoms as many in kind as the various elements. The Jains approximated to Democritus by teaching that all atoms were of the same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes of combination. Kanada believed light and heat to be varieties of the same substance; Udayana taught that all heat comes from the sun; and Vachaspati, like Newton, interpreted light as composed of minute particles emitted by substances and striking the eye. Musical notes and intervals were analyzed and mathematically calculated in the Indian treatises on music. and the Pyrthogorean Law was formulated by which the number of vibrations, and therefore the pitch of the note, varies inversely as the length of the string between the point of attachment and the point of touch.
***
The calculation of eclipses was given by Indian astronomers, refer to verses from Varahamihira's texts, which give the true reasons for eclipses as the earth's and moon's shadows (no rAhu kEtu here).
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Education
The world's first university was established at Takshashila (northwest region of India) in approximately 700 B.C. The Universities in ancient India were entirely residential. It was considered that a University should contain at least 21 Professors well versed in Philosophy, Theology and Law; pupils were given free tuition, free boarding, and students who went to an educational institution - be the king or a peasant - lived and boarded together. Ashramas, Viharas and Parishads were great centers of culture and attracted large numbers.
When Alexander reached Punjab in 327 BC, Takshashila, the world's oldest university was already established as a place of learning. John Keay in his book India: a History" writes:
"Students went there to learn the purest Sanskrit. Kautilya, whose Arthashashtra is the classic Indian treatise on statecraft, is said to have been born there in the third century BC. It was also in Taxila that, in the previous century, Panini compiled a grammar more comprehensive and scientific than any dreamed of by Greek grammarians. The glory for the western world is the library of Alexandria, which was sanctioned by Ptolemy I Soter, the successor of Alexander of Macedonia in around 300 BC. While the Maurya empire was in power in India..."
Dr. Ernest Binfield Havell (1861-1934) principal to the Madras College of Art in the 1890s and left as principal of the Calcutta College of Art some 20 years later. He wrote several books, including his book, Indian Architecture - Its Psychology, Structure and History from the First Mohammedan Invasion to the Present Day has remarked:
"From the Guru the student would pass, about the age of sixteen, to one of the great universities that were the glory of ancient and medieval India. Benares, Taxila, Vidarbha, Ajanta, Ujjain or Nalanda. Benares was the stronghold of learning in Buddha's days. Taxila was known at the time of Alexander's invasion, was known to all of Asia as the leading seat of Hindu scholarship, renowned above all for its medical school; Ujjain was held in high repute for astronomy, Ajanta for the teaching of art. The facade of one of the ruined buildings at Ajanta suggests the magnificence of these old universities."
(source: Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage - By Will Durant MJF Books.1935 p. 556-557).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:38 PM
When Cyrus the Great (558-530 B.C.), came to the throne, the city of Takshasila, was already a center of learning and trade. Young men from Magadha were sent there to finish their education. The Jataka tales show that young men from all over the civilized part of India sought education in this city, as well as from Persia and Mesopotamia.
The campus accommodated 10,500 students and offered over sixty different courses in various fields, such as science, mathematics, medicine, politics, warfare, astrology, astronomy, music, religion, and philosophy. The minimum age for admission was 16 years and students from as far as Babylonia, Greece, Syria, Arabia, and China came to study at the university. Taxila, stood on the banks of the river Vitasa in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent.
Panini, the great Sanskrit grammarian, Charaka, the author of famous treatise on medicine, and Chanakya, writer of Artha Shastra -- these august names are associated with Taxila. Promising minds from far flung regions converged there to study the Vedas and all branches of secular knowledge. Takshasila or Taxila, as the Greeks called it over 2,000 years ago, was at one of the entrances to the splendor that was India. Its antiquity is rooted both in epic texts like the Ramayana, Mahabharata and the other Puranas. The Jakatas are full of references to Taxila - over 100 in fact. We gleam a good many details about it from them. Mention is made of world-renowned professors who taught the Vedas, the Kalas, Shilpa, Archery and so on. King Kosala and Jivaka, the famous physician were students of the University, the latter learning medicine under Rishi Atreya. Great stress was laid on the study of Sanskrit and Pali literature.
The University of Vikramasila accommodated 8,000 people. It was situated on a hill in Magadha on the banks of the Ganga and flourished for four centuries. It was destroyed along with Nalanda by the Mohammedan invasion. They speak of Kulapatis in those times; the technical meaning of the word is 'one who feeds' and teaches 10,000 students'. Kanva was one such Kulapati. Kalidasa speaks of the various kinds of knowledge taught and learnt under the guidance of Kanva.
The University of Nalanda built in the 4th century BCE was one of the greatest achievements of ancient India in the field of education. Buddha visited Nalanda several times during his lifetime. The Chinese scholar and traveler Hiuen Tsang stayed here in the 7th century, and has left an elaborate description of the excellence, and purity of monastic life practiced here. About 2,000 teachers and 10,000 students from all over the Buddhist world, lived and studied in this international university. In this first residential international university of the world, 2,000 teachers and 10,000 students from all over the Buddhist world lived and studied here.
It had ten thousand students, one hundred lecture-rroms, great libraries, and six immense blocks of dormitories four stories high; its observatories, said Yuan Chwang, "were lost in the vapors of the morning, and the upper rooms towered above the clouds." The old Chinese pilgrim loved the learned monks and shady groves of Nalanda so well he stayed there for five years.
(source: Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage - By Will Durant MJF Books.1935 p. 556-557 and Facets of Indian Culture - By R. Srinivasan Publisher: Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan p. 237-239).
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The Gupta kings patronized these monasteries, built in old Kushan architectural style, in a row of cells around a courtyard. Ashoka and Harshavardhana were some of its most celebrated patrons who built temples and monasteries here. Recent excavations have unearthed elaborate structures here. Hiuen Tsang had left ecstatic accounts of both the ambiance and architecture of this unique university of ancient times. The Nalanda university counted on its staff such great thinkers as Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubhandu, Asanga, Sthiramati, Dharmapala, Silaphadra, Santideva and Padmasambhava. The ancient universities were the sanctuaries of the inner life of the nation. Another large university was established at Nalanda around 500 B.C. Approximately one mile long and half-mile wide, this campus housed a large library, called Dharam gunj (Treasure of Knowledge), that spread over three buildings, known as Ratna Sagar, Ratnadevi, and Ratnayanjak. Among other facilities, the university included 300 lecture halls, several laboratories, and an astronomical research observatory called Ambudharavlehi. The university used handwritten manuscripts for teaching and attracted students and staff from many countries, including China, Korea and Japan. According to the Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang, the campus housed 10,000 students, 2,000 professors, and a large administrative staff.
(source: The Hindu Mind - Fundamentals of Hindu Religion and Philosophy for All Ages - By Bansi Pandit B & V Enterprises, Inc ISBN: 0963479849 p. 302).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:41 PM
These universities were sacked, plundered, looted by the Islamic onslaught.
According to historian Will Durant:
"The Mohemmedans destroyed nearly all the monasteries, Buddhist or Hindu, in northern India. Nalanda was burned to the ground in 1197 and all its monks were slaughtered; we can never estimate the abundant life of ancient India from what these fanatics spared."
(source: Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage - By Will Durant MJF Books.1935 p. 558).
The Moghuls neglected practical and secular learning, especially the sciences. Throughout their long rule, no institutions was established comparable to modern university, although early India had world-famous centers of learning such as Taxila, Nalanda and Kanchi. Neither the nobles nor the mullas were stirred into learning...
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Chemistry and metallurgy
Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone has written: "Their (Indians) chemical skill is a fact more striking and more unexpected." "They knew how to prepare sulphuric acid, nitric acid and muratic acid; the oxide of copper, iron, lead (of which they had both the red oxide and litharge), tin and zinc: the suphuret of iron, copper, mercury, and antimony, and arsenic; the sulphate of copper, zinc and iron; and carbonates of lead and iron. Their modes of preparing these substances were sometimes peculiar."
(source: History of Hindu Chemistry - By Mountstuart Elphinstone Volume I, Introduction, p. xii and 54).
Chemistry developed from two source - medicine and industry. Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of Gupta Period, when India was looked to, even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and cement. As early as the second century B.C. Nagarjuna devoted an entire volume to mercury. By the sixth century Indians were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of calcination, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders, and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloy.
Abundant evidence available suggests that the ancient Indians were highly skilled in manufacturing and working with iron and in making and tempering steel. The analysis of zinc alloys like brass, from archaeological excavations, testify that the zinc distillation process was known in India as early as 150 B.C. Indian steel, famous worldwide, is mentioned in history books which tell us that when Alexander invaded India, Porus, otherwise known as Purushottam, presented him with thirty pounds of steel, thus indicating its high value.
South India was a region that was renowned for metallurgy and metalwork in the old days. In Karnataka, fine steel wires were being produced for use as strings in musical instruments, at a time when the western world was using animal gut for the same purpose. Kerala, besides its large iron smelting furnaces, boasted of special processes such as the metal mirror of Aranmula. High quality steel from Tamil Nadu was exported all over the world since Roman times. The Konasamudram region in Andhra Pradesh was famous for producing the world renowned Wootz steel - the raw material for King Saladin's fabled Damascus Sword. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times. King Porus is said to have selected, as special valuable gift for Alexander, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Muslims took much of this Indian chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing "Damascus" blades, for example, was taken by Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India.
Persians considered Indian swords to be the best, and the phrase, " Jawabi hind, literally meaning " Indian answer," meant "a cut with the sword made of Indian steel." That the art of metarllurgy was highly developed in ancient India is further reaffirmed by the fact that the Gypsies, who originated in India, are highly skilled craftsmen, and it has been suggested that the art of the forge may have been transmitted to Europe through Gypsies. Steel was manufactured in ancient India, and it was being exported to China at least by the fifth century A.D. That the Arabs also imported steel from India is testified to by Al Kindi, who wrote in the ninth century.
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Coinage dating from the 8th Century B.C. to the17th Century A.D. Numismatic evidence of the advances made by Smelting technology in ancient India. The image of Nataraja the God of Dance is made of five metals (Pancha-Dhatu). This technology of mixing two or more metals and deriving superior alloys has been observed and noted by the Greek Historian Philostratus. The Makara (Spire) over Hindu temples were always adorned with brass or gold toppings (Kamandals). The earliest reference to the advances made in Smelting technology in India are by Greek historians viz, Philostratus and Ktesias in the 4th century B.C.
Great progress was made in India in mineralogy and metallurgy. The mining and extensive use of gold, silver, and copper was undertaken in the Indus Valley in the third century B.C. In the vedic period extensive use was made of copper, bronze, and brass for household utensils, weapons, and images for worship. Patanjali, writing in the second century B.C. in his Lohasastra, gives elaborate directions for many metallurgic and chemical processes, especially the preparation of metallic salts, alloys, and amalgams, and the extraction, purification, and assaying of metals. The discovery of aqua regia ( a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acid to dissolve gold and platinum) is ascribed to him. Numerous specimens of weapons made of iron have been excavated, probably belonging to the fourth century B.C. Iron clamps and the iron stag found at the Bodhgaya temple point to the knowledge of the process of manufacturing iron as early as the third century B.C.
Horace Hyman Wilson (1786-1860) says: "The Hindus have the art of smelting iron, of welding it, and of making steel, and have had these arts from times immemorial."
(source: History of British India - By James Mill volume II p. 47).
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Saladin's sword
The finest Damascus steel was made by a process known only to Indians. The original Damascus steel-the world's first high-carbon steel-was a product of India known as wootz. Wootz is the English for ukku in Kannada and Telugu, meaning steel. Indian steel was used for making swords and armour in Persia and Arabia in ancient times. Ktesias at the court of Persia (5th c BC) mentions two swords made of Indian steel which the Persian king presented him. The pre-Islamic Arab word for sword is 'muhannad' meaning from Hind.
Wootz was produced by carburising chips of wrought iron in a closed crucible process. "Wrought iron, wood and carbonaceous matter was placed in a crucible and heated in a current of hot air till the iron became red hot and plastic. It was then allowed to cool very slowly (about 24 hours) until it absorbed a fixed amount of carbon, generally 1.2 to 1.8 per cent," said eminent metallurgist Prof. T.R. Anantharaman, who taught at Banares Hindu University, Varanasi. "When forged into a blade, the carbides in the steel formed a visible pattern on the surface." To the sixth century Arab poet Aus b. Hajr the pattern appeared described 'as if it were the trail of small black ants that had trekked over the steel while it was still soft'.
The carbon-bearing material packed in the crucible was a clever way to lower the melting-point of iron (1535 degrees centigrade). The lower the melting-point the more carbon got absorbed and high-carbon steel was formed. In the early 1800s, Europeans tried their hand at reproducing wootz on an industrial scale. Michael Faraday, the great experimenter and son of a blacksmith, tried to duplicate the steel by alloying iron with a variety of metals but failed. Some scientists were successful in forging wootz but they still were not able to reproduce its characteristics, like the watery mark. "Scientists believe that some other micro-addition went into it," said Anantharaman. "That is why the separation of carbide takes place so beautifully and geometrically."
(source: Lost knowledge - The Week June 2001).
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Hindus made the best swords in the ancient world, they discovered the process of making Ukku steel, called Damascus steel by the rest of the world (Damas meaning water to the Arabs, because of the watery designs on the blade). These were the best swords in the ancient world, the strongest and the sharpest, sharper even than Japanese katanas. Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Persians, Turks, and Chinese imported it. The original Damascus steel-the world's first high-carbon steel-was a product of India known as wootz. Wootz is the English for ukku in Kannada and Telugu, meaning steel. Indian steel was used for making swords and armor in Persia and Arabia in ancient times. Ktesias at the court of Persia (5th c BC) mentions two swords made of Indian steel which the Persian king presented him. The pre-Islamic Arab word for sword is 'muhannad' meaning from Hind. So famous were they that the Arabic word for sword was Hindvi - from Hind.
The crucible process could have originated in south India and the finest steel was from the land of Cheras, said K. Rajan, associate professor of archaeology at Tamil University, Thanjavur, who explored a 1st century AD trade centre at Kodumanal near Coimbatore. Rajan's excavations revealed an industrial economy at Kodumanal. Pillar of strength The rustless wonder called the Iron Pillar near the Qutb Minar at Mehrauli in Delhi did not attract the attention of scientists till the second quarter of the 19th century. The inscription refers to a ruler named Chandra, who had conquered the Vangas and Vahlikas, and the breeze of whose valour still perfumed the southern ocean. "The king who answers the description is none but Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta empire," said Prof. T.R. Anantharaman, who has authored The Rustless Wonder. Zinc metallurgy travelled from India to China and from there to Europe. As late as 1735, professional chemists in Europe believed that zinc could not be reduced to metal except in the presence of copper. The alchemical texts of the mediaeval period show that the tradition was live in India. In 1738, William Champion established the Bristol process to produce metallic zinc in commercial quantities and got a patent for it. Interestingly, the mediaeval alchemical text Rasaratnasamucchaya describes the same process, down to adding 1.5 per cent common salt to the ore.
(source: Saladin's sword - The Week - June 24, 2001 - http://netinfo.hypermart.net/telingsteel.htm).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:47 PM
Iron Pillar
- The Rustless Wonder and a Unique Scientific Phenomenon from Ancient India. A product of great metallurgical ingenuity
Traditional Indian iron and steel are known to have some very special properties such as resistance to corrosion. This is substantiated by the 1600-year-old, twenty-five feet high iron pillar next to the Qutub Minar in New Delhi, believed to have been installed during Chandragupta Maurya's reign. The famous iron pillar in Delhi belonging to the fourth-fifth century A.D. is a metallurgical wonder. This huge wrought iron pillar, 24 feet in height 16.4 inches in diameter at the bottom, and 6 1/2 tons in weight has stood exposed to tropical sun and rain for fifteen hundred years, but does not show the least sign of rusting or corrosion. Evidence shows that the pillar was once a Garuda Stambha from a Vishnu temple. This pillar was plundered by Islamic hoards from a temple dedicated to Vishnu and added as a trophy in the Quwwat al-Islam mosque in Delhi. Made of pure iron, which even today can be produced only in small quantities by electrolysis. Such a pillar would be most difficult to make even today. Thus, the pillar defies explanation.
The pillar is believed to have been made by forging together a series of disc-shaped iron blooms. Apart from the dimensions another remarkable aspect of the iron pillar is the absence of corrosion which has been linked to the composition, the high purity of the wrought iron and the phosphorus content and the distribution of slag.
Even with today's advances, only four foundries in the world could make this piece and none are able to keep it rust free. The earliest known metal expert (2,200 years ago ) was Rishi Patanjali.
The pillar is a solid shaft of iron sixteen inches in diameter and 23 feet high. What is most astounding about it is that it has never rusted even though it has been exposed to wind and rain for centuries! The pillar defies explanation, not only for not having rusted, but because it is apparently made of pure iron, which can only be produced today in tiny quantities by electrolysis! The technique used to cast such a gigantic, solid pillar is also a mystery, as it would be difficult to construct another of this size even today. The pillar stands as mute testimony to the highly advanced scientific knowledge that was known in antiquity, and not duplicated until recent times. Yet still, there is no satisfactory explanation as to why the pillar has never rusted!
(source: Technology of the Gods: The Incredible Sciences of the Ancients - By David Hatcher Childress p. 80).
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-20 07:49 PM ]
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The Delhi Iron Pillar is a testimony to the high level of skill achieved by the ancient Indian ironsmiths in the extraction and processing of iron.
Refer to Delhi Iron Pillar - By Prof. R. Balasubramaniam - Professor Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engg Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016.
Contributed to this site by Prof. R. Balasubramaniam. URL: http://home.iitk.ac.in/~bala
The pillar is a classical example of massive production of high class iron and is the biggest hand-forged block of iron from antiquity. It is a demonstration of the high degree of accomplishment in the art of iron making by ancient Indian iron and steel makers. It has been said that the Indians were the only non-European people who manufactured heavy forged pieces of iron and the pieces were of the size that the European smiths did not learn to make more than one thousand years later.
The iron pillar near New Delhi is an outstanding example of Gupta craftmanship. Its total height inclusive of the capital is 23 feet 8 inches. Its entire weight is 6 tons. The pillar consists of a square abacus, the melon shaped member and a capital. According to Percy Brown, this pillar is a remarkable tribute to the genius and manipulative dexterity of the Indian worker. Dr. Vincent Smith says: "It is not many years since the production of such a pillar would have been an impossibility in the largest foundries of the world and even now there are comparatively few where a similar mass of metal could be turned out."
(source: Ancient India - By V. D. Mahajan p. 543).
The iron pillar has an inscription in Samskritam written in Brahmi script. It is a Vishnu Dhvaja on a hill called Vishnupaada. Installed by King Chandra.
"He, on whose arm fame was inscribed by the sword, when, in battle in the Vanga countries, he kneaded (and turned) back with (his) breast the enemies who, uniting together, came against (him);-he, by whom, having crossed in warfare the seven mouths of the (river) Sindhu, the Vâhlikas were conquered;-he, by the breezes of whose prowess the southern ocean is even still perfumed;-
(Line 3.)-He, the remnant of the great zeal of whose energy, which utterly destroyed (his) enemies, like (the remnant of the great
glowing heat) of a burned-out fire in a great forest, even now leaves not the earth; though he, the king, as if wearied, has quitted this earth, and has gone to the other world, moving in (bodily) form to the land (of paradise) won by (the merit of has) actions, (but) remaining on (this) earth by (the memory of his) fame;-
(L. 5.)-By him, the king,-who attained sole supreme sovereignty in the world, acquired by his own arm and (enjoyed) for a
very long time; (and) who, having the name of Chandra, carried a beauty of countenance like (the beauty of) the full-moon,-having in faith fixed his mind upon (the god) Vishnu, this lofty standard of the divine Vishnu was set up on the hill (called) Vishnupada."
(source: yahoogroups - Indian Civilization).
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The excellent state of preservation of the Iron Pillar, near the Qutb Minar at Mehrauli in Delhi, despite exposure for 15 centuries to the elements has amazed corrosion technologists.
In 1961, the pillar (23 feet and 8 inches, and 6 tonnes) was dug out for chemical treatment and preservation and reinstalled by embedding the underground part in a masonry pedestal. Chemical analyses have indicated that the pillar was astonishingly pure or low in carbon compared with modern commercial iron.
Traditional Indian iron and steel are known to have some very special properties such as resistance to corrosion. This is substantiated by the 1600-year-old, twenty-five feet high iron pillar next to the Qutub Minar in New Delhi, believed to have been installed during Chandragupta Maurya's reign. Reports of an international seminar conducted by the National Metallurgical Laboratory at Jamshedupur in 1963 on the Delhi Iron Pillar, showed that the pillar's corrosion resistance was not merely the result of some fortuitous circumstances or Delhi's low humidity, but the product of great metallurgical ingenuity. In fact, rust-proof iron has been found in very humid areas as well. A temple, dedicated to the Goddess Mookambika, is located in Kolur in Kodachadri Hills in Karnataka - a region which receives a heavy annual monsoon. A slender iron pillar near the Mookambika temple stands unrusted despite the severe climatic conditions that it is subjected to.
(source: Center for Indian Knowledge Systems - http://www.ciks.org/methist.html)
The iron pillar near Qutub Minar at New Delhi is in the news, thanks to the research by Prof. R. Balasubramaniam of IIT, Kanpur and his team of metallurgists. The pillar is said to be 1,600 years old. A protective layer of `misawite' ¡ª a compound made up of iron, oxygen and hydrogen on the steel pillar, which is said to contain phosphorus - is claimed as the reason for the non-corrosive existence.
(source: Iron pillar and nano powder - http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehin ... 002082900020200.htm
All this historical evidence points to the fact that there existed a body of knowledge in the fields of metallurgy and metalworking which, if rediscovered and re-implemented, could revolutionize the country's iron and steel industry.
The Periplus mentions that in the first century A.D. Indian iron and steel were being exported to Africa and Ethiopia. Indian metallurgists were well known for their ability to extract metal from ore and their cast products were highly valued by the Romans, Egyptians, and Arabs.
Even in technology Indian contribution to world civilization were significant. The spinning wheel is an Indian invention, and apart from its economic significance in reducing the cost of textiles, is one of the first examples of the belt-transmission of power. The stirrup, certainly the big-toe stirrup, is of second century B.C. Indian origin. The ancient blow-gun (nalika), which shot small arrows or iron pellets, may well have been a forerunner of the air-gun which is supposed to have been invented by the Europeans in the sixteenth century.
More important is the fact that India supplied the concept of perpetual motion to European thinking about mechanical power. The origin of this concept has been traced to Bhaskara, and it was taken to Europe by the Arabs where it not only helped European engineers to generalize their concept of mechanical power, but also provoked a process of thinking by analogy that profoundly influenced Western scientific views. The Indian idea of perpetual motion is in accordance with the Hindu belief in the cyclical and self-renewing nature of all things.
In fact, rust-proof iron has been found in very humid areas as well. A temple, dedicated to the Goddess Mookambika, is located in Kolur in Kodachadri Hills in Karnataka - a region which receives a heavy annual monsoon. A slender iron pillar near the Mookambika temple stands unrusted despite the severe climatic conditions that it is subjected to.
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Galvanising feat
The oldest among the triad of metallurgical marvels of ancient India is the extraction of zinc. Zinc is better known as a constituent of brass than a metal in its own right. Brass with 10 per cent zinc glitters like gold.
The earliest brass objects in India have been unearthed from Taxila (circa 44 BC). They had more than 35 per cent zinc. "This high content of zinc could be put in only by direct fusion of metallic zinc and copper," said Prof. T.R. Anantharaman. The other process, which is no more in use, is by heating zinc ore and copper metal at high temperatures, but the zinc content in brass then cannot be more than 28 per cent.
Zinc smelting is very complicated as it is a very volatile material. Under normal pressure it boils at 913 degrees centigrade. To extract zinc from its oxide, the oxide must be heated to about 1200 degrees in clay retorts. In an ordinary furnace the zinc gets vapourised, so there has to be a reducing atmosphere. By an ingenious method of reverse distillation ancient metallurgists saw to it that there was enough carbon to reduce the heat.
Proof of the process came from excavations at Zawar in Rajasthan. The Zawar process consisted of heating zinc in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide in clay retorts arranged upside down, and collecting zinc vapour in a cooler chamber placed vertically beneath the retort.
Zinc metallurgy traveled from India to China and from there to Europe. As late as 1735, professional chemists in Europe believed that zinc could not be reduced to metal except in the presence of copper. The alchemical texts of the mediaeval period show that the tradition was live in India.
(source: Lost knowledge - The Week June 2001).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:52 PM
Manufacture of Iron and Steel in India
The substance which seems to have evoked the most scientific and technical interest in the Britain of the 1790s was the sample of wootz steel by Dr. Scott to Sir J. Banks, the President of the British Royal Society. The sample went through thorough examination and analysis by several experts. It was found in general to match the best steel then available in Britain, and according to one user, "purpose of fine cutlery, and particularly for all edge instruments used for surgical purposes."
After its being sent as a sample in 1794 and its examination and analysis in late 1794 and early 1795, it began to be much in demand, and some 18 years later the afore-quoted user of steel stated, "I have to use it for many purposes. If a better steel is offered to me, I will gladly attend to it; but the steel of India is decidedly the best I have yet met with."
Till well into the 19th Britain produced very little of the steel it required and imported it from Sweden, Russia, etc. Partly, Britain lag in steel production was due to the inferior quality of its iron ore, and the fuel, i.e. coal, it used. Possibly such lag also resulted from Britain's backwardness in the comprehensive of processes and theories on which the production of good steel depended.
Whatever may have been the understanding in the other European countries regarding the details of the processes employed in the manufacture of Indian steel, the British, at the time wootz was examined and analysed by them, concluded, "that it is made directly from the ore and consequently it has never been in the state of wrought iron." Its qualities were thus ascribed to the quality of the ore from which it came and these qualities were considered to have little to do with the techniques and processes employed by the Indian manufacturers. In fact it was felt that the various cakes of wootz were of uneven texture and the cause of such imperfection and defects was thought to lie in the crudeness of the techniques employed.
It was only some three decades later that this view was revised. An earlier revision in fact, even when confronted with contrary evidence as was made available by other observers of the Indian techniques and processes, was intellectual impossibility. "That iron could be converted into cast steel by fusing it in a close vessel in contact with carbon" was yet to be discovered, and it was only in 1825 that a British manufacturer "took out a patent for converting iron into steel by exposing it to the action of caruretted hydrogen gas in a close vessel, at a very high temperature, by which means the process of conversion is completed in a few hours, while by the old method, it was the work of from 14 to 20 days."
According to J. M. Heath, founder of the Indian Iron and Steel Company, and later prominently connected with the development of steel making in Sheffield, the Indian process appeared to combine both of the above early 19th century British discoveries. He observed: "Now it appears to me that the Indian process combines the principles of both the above described methods. On elevating the temperature of the crucible containing pure iron, and dry wood, and green leaves, an abundant evolution of carburetted hydrogen gas would take place from the vegetable matter, and as its escape would be prevented by the luting at the mouth of the crucible, it would be retained in contact with the iron, which, at a high temperature, appears from (the above mentioned patent process) to have a much greater affinity for gaseous than for conrete carbon; this would greatly shorten the operation, and probably at a much lower temperature than were the iron in contact with charcoal powder."
And he added: "In no other way can I account for the fact that iron is converted into cast steel by the natives of India, in two hours and half, with an application of heat, that, in this country, would be considered quite inadequate to produce such an effect; while at Sheffield it requires at least four hours to melt blistered steel in wind-furnaces of the best construction, although the crucibles in which the steel is melted, are at a white heat when the metal is put into them, and in the Indian process, the crucibles are put into the furnace quite cold."
(source: Indian Science and Technology in the 18th Century - By Dharampal).
Dr. Ray says: ¡°Coming to comparatively later times, we find that the Indians were noted for their skill in tempering of steel. The blades of Damascus were held in high esteem, but it was from India that the Persians, and, through them, the Arabs learnt the secret of the operation. The wrought iron pillar close to the Kutub Minar, near Delhi, which weighs ten tons and is some 1,500 years old, the huge iron girders at Puri, the ornamental gates of Somnath, and the 24 feet wrought iron gun at Nurvar, are monuments of a bygone art, and bear silent but eloquent testimony to the marvelous metallurgical skill attained by the Hindus.¡±
Regarding the iron pillar, James Fergusson (1808-1886) says: ¡°It has not, however, been yet correctly ascertained what its age really is. There is an inscription upon it, but without a date. From the form of its alphabet, James Prinsep ascribed it to the third or fourth century.¡± Fergusson continues, ¡°Taking A.D 400 as a mean date ¨C and it certainly is not far from the truth ¨C it opens our eyes to an unsuspected state of affairs, to find the Hindus at that age capable of forging a bar of iron larger than any that have been forged even in Europe up to a very late date, and not frequently even now. As we find them, however, a few centuries afterwards using bars as long as this lat in roofing the porch of the temple at Kanaruc, we must now believe that they were much more familiar with the use of this metal than they afterwards became. It is almost equally startling to find that after an exposure to wind and rain for fourteen centuries it is unrusted, and the capital and inscription are as clear and as sharp now as when put up fourteen centuries ago. There is no mistake about the pillar being of pure iron. General Alexander Cunningham had a bit of it analyzed in the School of Mines here by Dr. Percy. Both found it to be pure malleable iron without any alloy.¡±
Mrs. Charlotte Manning says: ¡°The superior quality of Hindu steel has long been known, and it is worthy of record that the celebrated Damascus blades, have been traced to the workshops of Western India.¡± She adds: ¡°Steel manufactured in Kutch enjoys at the present day a reputation not inferior to that of the steel made in Glasgow and Sheffield.¡± ¡°It is probable that ancient India possessed iron more than sufficient for her wants, and that the Phoenicians fetched iron with other merchandise from India.¡±
(source: Hindu Superiority - By Har Bilas Sarda p. 400-404).
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Iron suspension bridges came from Kashmir in India.
Papermaking was commonplace in India and China.
European explorers depended heavily on Indian ship builders.
(source: Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - By Dick Teresi p. 326).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:54 PM
Predicting earthquakes - was dealt with in detail in the 32nd chapter of Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita.
The greatness of philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Varahamihira (505-587 AD) is widely acknowledged. The Ujjain-born scholar was one of the Navaratnas in the court of King Vikramaditya Chandragupta II. His works, Pancha-Siddhantika (The Five Astronomical Canons) and Brihat Samhita (The Great Compilation), are considered seminal texts on ancient Indian astronomy and astrology.
What has astonished scientists and Vedic scholars and has renewed interest in the Brihat Samhita, are references to unusual "earthquake clouds" as precursor to earthquakes.
The 32nd chapter of the manuscript is devoted to signs of earthquakes and correlates earthquakes with cosmic and planetary influences, underground water and undersea activities, unusual cloud formations, and the abnormal behaviour of animals.
Varahamihira categorises earthquakes into different kinds and says that the indications of one particular kind will appear in the form of unusual cloud formations a week before its occurrence: "Its indications appearing a week before are the following: Huge clouds resembling blue lily, bees and collyrium in colour, rumbling pleasantly, and shining with flashes of lightning, will pour down slender lines of water resembling sharp clouds. An earthquake of this circle will kill those that are dependent on the seas and rivers; and it will lead to excessive rains." 1500 years ago a celebrated astronomer-astrologer-mathematician sought to study earthquakes on the Indian subcontinent. He drew correlations between terrestrial earth, the atmosphere and planetary influences. He described earth as a mass floating on water and spoke of unusual cloud formations and abnormal animal behaviour as precursors to earthquakes."
"All in all, this should be accepted as nothing but astounding."
(source: A temblor from ancient Indian treasure trove? - Times of India 4/28/01).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-20 07:54 PM
Diamonds were first mined in India
Knowledge of diamond and the origin of its many connations starts in India, where it was first mined. The word most generally used for diamond in Sanskrit is translitereated as vajra, "thunderbolt," and indrayudha, "Indra's weapon." Because Indra is the warrior god from Vedic scriptures, the foundation of Hinduism, the thunderbolt symbol indicates much about the Indian conception of diamond. The flash of lightning is a suitable comparison for the light thrown off by a fine diamond octahedron and a diamond's indomitable hardness. Early descriptions of vajra date to the 4th century BCE which is supported by archaeological evidence. By that date diamond was a valued material.
Writings: The earliest known reference to diamond is a Sanskrit manuscript, the Arthasastra ("The Lesson of Profit") by Kautiliya, a minister to Chandragupta of the Mauryan dynasty in northern India. The work is dated from 320-296 before the Common Era (BCE). Kautiliya states "(a diamond that is) big, heavy, capable of bearing blows, with symmetrical points, capable of scratching (from the inside) a (glass) vessel (filled with water), revolving like a spindle and brilliantly shining is excellent. That (diamond) with points lost, without edges and defective on one side is bad." Indians recognized the qualities of a fine diamond octahedron and valued it.
(source: American Museum of Natural History).
The Ratnapradeepika deals with diamonds, precious stones and pearls. The word Vajrah suggests diamonds in general, and the properties in general. The Maharshis such as Shounaka have divided diamonds into 4 classes - Khanija, Kulaja, Shilaja and Kritaka. It also deals with the manufacturing of artificial diamonds. The salts of alum, borax and ooshara are regarded as the best ones for this purpose.
(source: Diamonds, Mechanisms, Weapons of War and Yoga Sutras - By G. R. Joyser International Academy of Sanskrit Research. p. 1-14).
Pliny, the Roman writer (AD 23-79) calls India "the sole mother of precious stones," and the "great producer of the most costly gems."
(source: Sanskrit Civilization - By G. R. Josyer International Academy of Sanskrit Researches p. 192).
Arthur George Parkin, the well known expert in natural coloring, writes in his work that the process of coloring thread perfectly with blue and bright red (Manjista) was known to India from times immemorial and they earned immense money out of the export trade of colored thread.
(source: Ancient Indian Culture At A Glance - By Swami Tattwananda Calcutta, Oxford Book Co. 1962 p. 131).
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Military science
In regard to military science, the Ramayana and the Puranas make frequent mention of Shataghnis, or canons, being placed on forts and used in times of emergency. A canon was called "Shataghni" because it meant the fire weapon that kills one hundred men at once. They ascribe these agniyastras, or weapons of fire, to Visvakarma, the architect of the Vedic epics. Rockets were also Indian inventions and were used in native armies when Europeans first came into contact with them. As per Dante's Inferno, Alexander mentioned in a letter to Aristotle, that terrific flashes of flame showered on his army in India. The Shukra Neeti is an ancient text that deals with the manufacture of arms such as rifles and guns. In The Celtic Druids (pp-115-116), Godfrey Higgins provides evidence that Hindus knew of gun powder from the remotest antiquity.
(source: Proof of Vedic Culture's Global Existence - By Stephen Knapp p. 27-28).
According to Sir A. M. Eliot and Heinrich Brunnhofer (a German Indologist) and Gustav Oppert, all of whom have stated that ancient Hindus knew the use of gunpowder. Eliot tells us that the Arabs learnt the manufacture of gunpowder from India, and that before their Indian connection they had used arrows of naptha. It is also argued that though Persia possessed saltpetre in abundance, the original home of gunpowder was India. In the light of the above remarks we can trace the evolution of fire-arms in the ancient India.
(source: German Indologists: Biographies of Scholars in Indian Studies writing in German - By Valentine Stache-Rosen. p.92). (For more information on Military science please refer to chapter on War in Ancient India).
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Vimanas
¡°The ancient Hindus could navigate the air, and not only navigate it, but fight battles in it like so many war-eagles combating for the domination of the clouds. To be so perfect in aeronautics, they must have known all the arts and sciences related to the science, including the strata and currents of the atmosphere, the relative temperature, humidity, density and specific gravity of the various gases...¡±
~ Col. Henry S Olcott (1832 ¨C 1907) American author, attorney, philosopher, and cofounder of the Theosophical Society in a lecture in Allahabad, in 1881.
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The Process of Making Ice in the East Indies - By Sir Robert Barker published in 1775
Following is the method that was used to make ice in India as it was performed at Allahabad and Calcutta. On a large open plain, 3 or 4 excavations were made, each about 30 feet square and two deep; the bottoms of which were strewed about eight inches or a foot thick with sugar-cane, or the stems of the large Indian corn dried. Upon this bed were placed in rows, near to each other, a number of small shallow, earthen pans for containing the water intended to be frozen. These are unglazed, scarce a quarter of an inch thick, about an inch and a quarter in depth, and made of an earth so porous, that it was visible, from the exterior part of the pans, the water had penetrated the whole substance. Towards the dusk of the evening, they were filled with soft water, which had been boiled, and then left in the afore-related situation. The ice-makers attended the pits usually before the sun was above the horizon, and collected in baskets what was frozen, by pouring the whole contents of the pans into them, and thereby retaining the ice, which was daily conveyed to the grand receptacle or place of preservation, prepared generally on some high dry situation, by sinking a pit of fourteen or fifteen feet deep, lined first with straw, and then with a coarse king of blanketing, where it is beat down with rammers, till at length its own accumulated cold again freezes and forms one solid mass. The mouth of the pit is well secured from the exterior air with straw and blankets, in the manner of the lining, and a thatched roof is thrown over the whole.
The spongy nature of the sugar-canes, or stems of the Indian corn, appears well calculated to give a passage under the pans to the cold air; which, acting on the exterior parts of the vessels, may carry off by evaporating a proportion of the heat. The porous substance of the vessels seems equally well qualified for the admission of the cold air internally; and their situation being full of a foot beneath the plane of the ground, prevents the surface of the water from being ruffled by any small current of air, and thereby preserves the congealed particles from disunion. Boiling the water is esteemed a necessary preparative to this method of congelation.
In effecting which there is also an established mode of proceeding; the sherbets, creams, or whatever other fluids are intended to be frozen, are confined in thin silver cups of a conical form, containing about a pint, with their covers well luted on with paste, and placed in a large vessel filled with ice, salt-petre, and common salt, of the two the last an equal quantity, and a little water to dissolve the ice and combine the whole. This composition presently freezes the contents of the cups to the same consistency of our ice creams, etc. in Europe; but plain water will become so hard as to require a mallet and knife to break it. The promising advantages of such a discovery could alone induce the Asiatic to make an attempt of profiting by so a very short a duration of cold during the night in these months, and by a well-timed and critical contrivance of securing this momentary degree of cold, they have procured to themselves a comfortable refreshment as a recompence, to alleviate, in some degree, the intense heats of the summer season, which, in some parts of India, would be scarce supportable, but by the assistance of this and many other inventions.
(source: Indian Science and Technology in the 18th Century - By Dharampal p. 169-173).
Ice making in India. It was made in open pans.
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Shipbuilding and Navigation
wpe12.jpg (6724 bytes)The art of Navigation was born in the river Sindh 6000 years ago. The very word Navigation is derived from the Sanskrit word NAV Gatih.
The word navy is also derived from Sanskrit `Nou'.
The Vedic Age was a period of tremendous wealth and prosperity. The primary sources of knowledge about the Vedic Age is the Rig Veda. It was a cooperating society based on generate wealth. Gold (Hiranya in Sanskrit) was very valuable in this period. The Rig Veda even refers to gifts of gold necklaces reaching down to the chest (Hiranya plural). Gold was smelted from the beds of the rivers Saraswati and Sindhu (Indus).
The Rig Veda not only refer to the Saraswati as Hiranyavartani, or the path of gold (and the Sindhu as Hiranmayi or made of gold), it also makes a direct reference to panned-gold from the Saraswati river bed.
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Trade was also a big part of this civilization. There is overwhelming evidence that this civilization traded with the Egyptians (with the Sumerians acting as intermediaries). This directly implies the use of ships.
In fact, the Rig Veda makes several references to ships used to cross the "Samudra."
India was a peninsula cut off from the Northern world by the Himalayas, and from the Eastern and Western, by vast expanses of water, India had to take to shipping, if she wanted to export her immense surplus goods. Literature as well as art expresses the life of a people, and evidences from Indian literature and art prove that in ancient times, India had developed her own shipping.
Sailor dropping anchor at Angkorwat, Cambodia.
"Those who believe the ancient peoples of Asia were incapable of crossing the ocean have completely lost sight of what the literary sources tell us concerning their ships and their navigation."
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Sardar Kavalam Madhava Panikkar (1896-1963) Indian historian, in his book A Survey of Indian History, was the most impressive in depicting how South India¡¯s expansion into ¡°further India¡± was achieved by the very sea power that ten centuries later was to open India to colonization by the West:
"From the first century A.D we witness the strange fact of Hindu or Hinduised kingdoms in Annam , Cochin-China and the islands of the Pacific. The Ramayana knew of Java and Sumatra . Communication by sea between the ports of South India and the islands of the Pacific was well established many centuries before the Christian era."
(source: A Survey of Indian History - By Sardar Kavalam Madhava Panikkar p. 68 - 69).
For more refer to Greater India: Suvarnabhumi, Pacific and Sacred Angkor.
Baron Robert von Heine-Geldern (1885 - 1968) and Gordon F. Ekholm (1909 - 1987) the world's leading anthropologists, have strongly supported the claim that Indian ships went all the way to Mexico and Peru centuries before Columbus.
In the "Civilizations of Ancient America" they state:
"There appears to be little doubt but that ship building and navigation were sufficiently advanced in southern and eastern Asia at the period in question to have made trans-Pacific voyages possible. In the third century, horses were exported from India to the Malay Peninsula and Indo-China, an indication that there must have been ships of considerable size."
(source: India: Mother of us All - Edited by Chaman Lal p. 43-44).
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History of Indian Navy
http://armedforces.nic.in/navy/nahist.htm
India's maritime history predates the birth of western civilization. The world's first tidal dock is believed to have been built at Lothal around 2300 BC during the Harappan civilization, near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast.
Ancient Indian ocean-going ship arriving at Java, from a frieze of the Borobodur stupa.
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The Rig Veda, written around 2000 BC, credits Varuna with knowledge of the ocean routes commonly used by ships and describes naval expeditions using hundred-oared ships to subdue other kingdoms. There is a reference to Plava, the side wings of a vessel which give stability under storm conditions: perhaps the precursor of modern stabilisers. Similarly, the Atharva Veda mentions boats which were spacious, well constructed and comfortable.
In Indian mythology, Varuna was the exalted deity to whom lesser mortals turned for forgiveness of their sins. It is only later that Indra became known as the King of the Gods, and Varuna was relegated to become the God of Seas and Rivers. The ocean, recognized as the repository of numerous treasures, was churned by the Devas and Danavas, the sons of Kashyapa by queens Aditi and Diti, in order to obtain Amrit, the nectar of immortality. Even today the invocation at the launching ceremony of a warship is addressed to Aditi.
The influence of the sea on Indian kingdoms continued to grow with the passage of time. North-west India came under the influence of Alexander, who built a harbor at Patala where the Indus branches into two just before entering the Arabian Sea. His army returned to Mesopotamia in ships built in Sind. Records show that in the period after his conquest, Chandragupta Maurya established an Admiralty Division under a Superintendent of Ships as part of his war office, with a charter including responsibility for navigation on the seas, oceans, lakes and rivers. History records that Indian ships traded with countries as far as Java and Sumatra, and available evidence indicates that they were also trading with other countries in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Even before Alexander there were references to India in Greek works, and India had a flourishing trade with Rome. The Roman writer Pliny speaks of Indian traders carrying away large quantities of gold from Rome, in payment for much-sought exports such as precious stones, skins, clothes, spices, sandalwood, perfumes, herbs and indigo.
Trade of this volume could not have been conducted over the centuries without appropriate navigational skills. Two Indian astronomers of repute, Aryabhatta and Varahamihira, having accurately mapped the positions of celestial bodies, developed a method of computing a ship's position from the stars. A crude forerunner of the modern magnetic compass was being used around the fourth or fifth century AD. Called Matsya Yantra, it comprised an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed North.
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Between the fifth and tenth centuries AD, the Vijaynagaram and Kalinga kingdoms of southern and eastern India had established their rule over Malaya, Sumatra and Western Java. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands then served as an important midway point for trade between the Indian peninsula and these kingdoms, as also with China. The daily revenue from the eastern regions in the period 844-848 AD was estimated at 200 maunds (eight tons) of gold. In the period 984-1042 AD, the Chola kings dispatched great naval expeditions which occupied parts of Burma, Malaya and Sumatra, while suppressing the piratical activities of the Sumatran warlords. In 1292 AD, Marco Polo described Indian ships as " ...built of fir timber, having a sheath of boards laid over the planking in every part, caulked with oakum and fastened with iron nails. The bottoms were smeared with a preparation of quicklime and hemp, pounded together and mixed with oil from a certain tree which is a better material than pitch."
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The Rig Veda mentions the two oceans to the east and the west, (Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea) just as they mention ships and maritime trade. Bhujyu, who is one of the main ancestral figures of the Vedic people, is said in the Rig-Veda (1.116.5) to have been brought home safely in a ship with a hundred oars. The idea of a houseboat is implied in several hymns, and so is ocean travel over a period of many days. The Vedic people were well aware that the Indus and Saraswati poured their water into the ocean, that the oceans roars, is ever in motion through its waves, and encircles the land masses.
The picture of the Vedic people as seafaring merchants meshes perfectly with the archaeological evidence of the Indus-Saraswati civilization. Apart from foreign artifacts in the Indus cities and Indus artifacts overseas, there are also steatite seals depicting seaworthy vessels. The seafaring nature of the Hindus is well known from later sources. King Hiram of Tyre (Phoenicia) in 975 B.C. traded with India through the port of Ophir (Supara) near modern Bombay. Harappan seals discovered at several Mesopotamia sites have been dated to about 2400 B.C.
A panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicting a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types. Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru an ancient Indian text on Ship-building. There is evidence that a compass made by iron fish floating in a vessel of oil and pointing north was used by mariners. The typical Harappan seals have been found far a field in Oman, Mesopotamia, and the Maldives. These finds bear witness to the enthusiastic initiative of the early Indic peoples as sea faring merchants.
Despite Ancient Concerns about possibly losing caste from crossing the sea, history reveals India was the foremost maritime nation 2,000 years ago (meanwhile Europeans were still figuring out the Mediterranean Sea). It had colonies in Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Japan, China, Arabia, Egypt and more. Through Persians and Arabs, India traded with the Roman Empire. The Sanskrit text, Yukti Kalpa Taru, explains how to build ships, such as the one depicted in the Ajanta caves. It gives minute details about ship types, sizes and materials, including suitability of different types of wood. The treatise also elaborately explains how to decorate and furnish ships so they're comfortable for passengers.
Yuktikalpataru gives a detailed classification of ships: They were two kinds: ordinary (Samanya) ships comprising those used in inland waters and special (visesa) meant for sea journeys. The largest of these called Manthara measured 120 cubits in length, 60 in breadth and 60 cubits in height. During the days of the composition of Yuktikalpataru, it appears that ship-building was highly advanced. Bhoja has advised the builders of the sea-faring ships not to join the plants with iron, as, in the case, the magnetic iron in sea water could expose the ship to danger. To avoid this risk, he suggests that planks of the bottoms should be held together with the help of substances other than iron.
According to Marco Polo an Indian ship could carry crews between 100 to 300. Out of regard for passenger convenience and comfort, the ships were well furnished and decorated. Gold, silver, copper and compound of all these substances were generally used for ornamentation and decoration.
(source: India Through The Ages: History, Art Culture and Religion - By G. Kuppuram p. 527-531). For more information, refer to chapters on Seafaring in Ancient India and War in Ancient India).
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Recently, an Indian scholar, B. C. Chhabra, in his "Vestiges of Indian Culture in Hawaii", has noticed certain resemblances between the symbols found in the petroglyohs from the Hawaiian Islands and those on the Harappan seals. Some of the symbols in the petroglyphs are described as akin to early Brahmi script.
Will Durant, eminent American historian, in his book The Story of civilizations - Our Oriental Heritage described India as the most ancient civilization on earth and he offered many examples of Indian culture throughout the world. He demonstrated that as early as the ninth century B.C. E. Indians were exploring the sea routes, reaching out and extending their cultural influences to Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Egypt.
The art of shipbuilding and navigation in India and China at the time was sufficiently advanced for oceanic crossings. Indian ships operating between Indian and South-east Asian ports were large and well equipped to sail cross the Bay of Bengal. When the Chinese Buddhist scholar, Fa-hsien, returned from India, his ship carried a crew of more than two hundred persons and did not sail along the coasts but directly across the ocean. Such ships were larger than those Columbus used to negotiate the Atlantic a thousand years later.
Trade linkages existed between Philippines and with the powerful Hindu empires in Java and Sumatra. These linkages were venues for exchanges with Indian culture, including the adoption of syllabic scripts which are still used by indigenous groups in Palawan and Mindoro.
According to the work of mediaeval times, Yukti Kalpataru, which gives a fund of information about shipbuilding, India built large vessels from 200 B.C. to the close of the sixteenth century. A Chinese chronicler mentions ships of Southern Asia that could carry as many as one thousand persons, and were manned mainly by Malayan crews. They used western winds and currents in the North Pacific to reach California, sailed south along the coast, and then returned to Asia with the help of the trade winds, taking a more southerly route, without however, touching the Polynesian islands. The New Zealand pre historian, S. Percy Smith, tries to show in his Hawaiki - the Original home of the Maori that the ancient Polynesian wanderers left India as far back as the fourth century B.C. and were daring mariners who made, more often than not, adventurous voyages with the definite object of new settlements. A people who reached as far east as Easter Island could not have missed the great continent ahead of them.
It was probably gold, which initially attracted Indian adventurers and merchants to Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia was a region broadly referred to by ancient Indians as Suvarnabhumi (Land of Gold) or Suvarnadvipa (the Island of Gold). Arab writer Al Biruni testify that Indians called the whole Southeast region Suwarndib. Hellenistic geographers knew the area as the Golden Chersonese. The Chinese called it Kin-Lin; kin means gold. The mariners were probably looking for gold or were prospecting for precious metals, stones and pearls to cope with the demand in the centers of ancient civilizations.
"Ships of size that carried Fahien from India to China (through stormy China water) were certainly capable of proceeding all the way to Mexico and Peru by crossing the Pacific. One thousand years before the birth of Columbus Indian ships were far superior to any made in Europe upto the 18th century."
(source: The Civilizations of Ancient America: The Selected Papers of the XXIXth International Congress of Americanists - edited Sol Tax 1951).
He has also further noted that Bombay-built ships are at least one-fourth cheaper than those built in the docks of England. F. Balazar Solvyns, a Frenchman, wrote a book titled "Les Hindous" in 1811.
His remarks are, "In ancient times, the Indians excelled in the art of constructing vessels, and the present Hindus can in this respect still offer models to Europe-so much so that the English, attentive to everything which relates to naval architecture, have borrowed from the Hindus many improvement which they have adopted with success to their own shipping.... The Indian vessels unite elegance and utility and are models of patience and fine workmanship."
(source: http://www.orientalthane.com/speeches/speech_2.htm)
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:47 AM
In ancient times the Indians excelled in shipbuilding and even the English, who were attentive to everything which related to naval architecture, found early Indian models worth copying. The Indian vessels united elegance and utility, and were models of fine workmanship.
Sir John Malcolm (1769 - 1833) was a Scottish soldier, statesman, and historian entered the service of the East India Company wrote about Indian vessels that they:
"Indian vessels "are so admirably adapted to the purpose for which they are required that, not withstanding their superior science, Europeans were unable, during an intercourse with India for two centuries, to suggest or at least to bring into successful practice one improvement. "
(source: Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. I and India and World Civilization - By D P Singhal part II p. 76 - 77).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:48 AM
Kavalam Madhava Panikkar in his book Asia and Western Dominance ASIN: B00005VGEZ published by George Allen, London. 1959 says:
"It should be remembered that the Indian Ocean, including the entire coast of Africa, had been explored centuries ago by Indian navigators. Indian ships frequented the East African ports and certainly knew of Madagascar. Vasco da Gama's journey across the Indian Ocean was guided by an Indian pilot whom the King of Milindi had placed at his disposal. Fra Mauro preserves the tradition of two voyages from India past the south end of Africa. He marks the southern cape with the name of Diab and says that an Indian ship in about 1420 was storm-driven to this point and sailed westward to 2,000 miles in forty days, without touching land. Fra Mauro had also spoken himself with a person worthy of confidence who said he had sailed from India, past Sofala to a place called Garbin on the west coast of Africa. The Indian Ocean was therefore a charted sea whose routes were known, and as a navigation achievement long before de Gama."
The Indian Ocean had from time immemorial been the scene of intense commercial trade. Indian ships had from the beginning of history sailed across the Arabian Sea up to the Red Sea ports and maintained intimate cultural and commercial connections with Egypt, Israel and other countries of the Near East. Long before Hippalus disclosed the secret of the monsoon to the Romans, Indian navigators had made use of these winds and sailed to the Bab-el-Mandeb. To the east, Indian mariners had gone as far as Borneo and flourishing Indian colonies had existed for over 1,200 years in Malaya, the islands of Indonesia, in Cambodia and Champa and other areas of the coast. Indian ships from Quilon, made regular journeys to the South China coast. A long tradition of maritime life was part of the history of the Peninsular India. The supremacy of India in the waters that washed her coast was unchallenged till the rise of Arab shipping under the early khalifs. But the Arabs and Hindus competed openly, and the idea of 'sovereignty over the sea' except in the narrow straits was unknown to Asian conception. Naval fights on any large scale, in the manner of the wars between Carthage and Rome, seem to have been unknown in India before the arrival of the Portuguese."
(source: Asia and Western Dominance ASIN: B00005VGEZ published by George Allen, London. 1959 p. 28-30). For more on Shipbuilding in Ancient India, please refer to chapter Seafaring In Ancient India).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:49 AM
Sir Aurel Stein (1862-1943) a Hungarian and author of several books including Ra`jatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kashmir and Innermost Asia : detailed report of explorations in Central Asia, Kan-su, and Eastern Iran carried out and described under the orders of H.M. Indian Government, whose valuable researches have added greatly to our knowledge of Greater India, remarks:
"The vast extent of Indian cultural influences, from Central Asia in the North to tropical Indonesia in the South, and from the Borderlands of Persia to China and Japan, has shown that ancient India was a radiating center of a civilization, which by its religious thought, its art and literature, was destined to leave its deep mark on the races wholly diverse and scattered over the greater part of Asia."
(source: The Vision of India - By Sisir Kumar Mitra p. 178 and Main Currents of Indian Culture - By S. Natarajan p. 50).
"...an Indian naval pilot, named Kanha, was hired by Vasco da Gama to take him to India. Contrary to European portrayals that Indians knew only coastal navigation, deep-sea shipping had existed in India. Indian ships had been sailing to islands such as the Andamans, Lakshdweep and Maldives, around 2,000 years ago. Kautiliya's shastras describe the times that are good and bad for seafaring. In the medieval period, Arab sailors purchased their boats in India. The Portuguese also continued to get their boats from India, and not from Europe. Shipbuilding and exporting was a major Indian industry, until the British banned it. There is extensive archival material on the Indian Ocean trade in Greek, Roman, and Southeast Asian sources."
(source: History of Indian Science & Technology).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:49 AM
Skilled Seafaring Men
Catamaran (from Tamil kattu "to tie" and maram "wood, tree") is a type of boat or ship consisting of two hulls joined by a frame. Catamarans were used by the ancient Tamil Chola dynasty as early as the 5th century AD for moving their fleets to conquer such Southeast Asian regions as Cambodia, Burma, Indonesia and Malaysia) to cross from Polynesia to South America even at the present time, and the ancient Asians were skilled and enterprising seafaring men.
(Note: US Government recently adopted the ancient Indian catamaran-making technology to construct fast ships. The ships, built with technology adapted from ancient Tamil methods to make catamarans, can travel over 2,500 kms in less than 48 hours, twice the speed of the regular cargo ships, and carry enough equipment to support about 5,000 soldiers, the Wall Street Journal reported yesterday).
(source: U.S. adopts Indian Catamaran technology - hindu.com and tribune.com).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:50 AM
Commerce
Though the Indians have practically no hand now in the commerce of the world, yet there was a time when they were the masters of the seaborne trade of Europe, Asia and Africa. They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried on overland or by sea.
As their immense wealth was in part the result of their extensive trade with other countries, so were the matchless fertility of the Indian soil and the numberless products of Hindu arts and industries the cause of the enormous development of the commerce of ancient India.
As poet William Cowper (1731-1800) wrote: ¡°And if a boundless plenty be the robe,
Trade is a golden girdle of the globe.¡±
India, which, according to the writer in the Chamber¡¯s Encyclopedia, ¡°has been celebrated during many ages for its valuable natural productions, its beautiful manufactures and costly merchandise,¡± was, says the Encyclopedia Britannica, ¡°once the seat of commerce.¡±
Mrs. Charlotte S Manning says: ¡°The indirect evidence afforded by the presence of Indian products in other countries coincides with the direct testimony of Sanskrit literature to establish the fact that the ancient Hindus were a commercial people.¡± She concludes: ¡°Enough has now been said to show that the Hindus have ever been a commercial people.¡±
(source: Ancient and Medieval India ¨C By Charlotte S Manning volume II p. 354)
Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeran (1760-1842) says: ¡°The Hindus in their most ancient works of poetry are represented as a commercial people.¡±
In Sanskrit books, we constantly read of merchants, traders, and men engrossed in commercial pursuits. Manu Smriti, one of the oldest books in the world, lays down laws to govern all commercial disputes having reference to seaborne traffic as well as the inland and overland commerce. Traders and merchants are frequently introduced in the Hindu drama. In Shakuntala we learn of the importance attached to commerce, where it is stated ¡°that a merchant named Dhanvriddhi, who had extensive commerce had been lost at sea and had left a fortune of many millions.¡± In Nala and Damyanti, too, we meet with similar incidents. Sir William Jones is of the opinion that the Hindus ¡°must have been navigators in the age of Manu, because bottomry (marine insurance) is mentioned in it.¡± In the Ramayana, the practice of bottomry is distinctly noticed. Lord Mountstuart Elphinstone says: ¡°The Hindus navigated the ocean as early as the age of Manu¡¯s code because we read in it of men well acquainted with sea voyages.
According to Max Dunker, ship-building was known in ancient India about 2000 B.C. It is thus clear that the Hindus navigated the ocean from the earliest times and that they carried on trade on an extensive scale with all the important nations of the Old World.
(source: History of Antiquity ¨C By Max Dunker volume IV).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:51 AM
Commerce
Though the Indians have practically no hand now in the commerce of the world, yet there was a time when they were the masters of the seaborne trade of Europe, Asia and Africa. They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried on overland or by sea.
As their immense wealth was in part the result of their extensive trade with other countries, so were the matchless fertility of the Indian soil and the numberless products of Hindu arts and industries the cause of the enormous development of the commerce of ancient India.
As poet William Cowper (1731-1800) wrote: ¡°And if a boundless plenty be the robe,
Trade is a golden girdle of the globe.¡±
India, which, according to the writer in the Chamber¡¯s Encyclopedia, ¡°has been celebrated during many ages for its valuable natural productions, its beautiful manufactures and costly merchandise,¡± was, says the Encyclopedia Britannica, ¡°once the seat of commerce.¡±
Mrs. Charlotte S Manning says: ¡°The indirect evidence afforded by the presence of Indian products in other countries coincides with the direct testimony of Sanskrit literature to establish the fact that the ancient Hindus were a commercial people.¡± She concludes: ¡°Enough has now been said to show that the Hindus have ever been a commercial people.¡±
(source: Ancient and Medieval India ¨C By Charlotte S Manning volume II p. 354)
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:52 AM
Commerce
Though the Indians have practically no hand now in the commerce of the world, yet there was a time when they were the masters of the seaborne trade of Europe, Asia and Africa. They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried on overland or by sea.
As their immense wealth was in part the result of their extensive trade with other countries, so were the matchless fertility of the Indian soil and the numberless products of Hindu arts and industries the cause of the enormous development of the commerce of ancient India.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:53 AM
Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeran (1760-1842) says: ¡°The Hindus in their most ancient works of poetry are represented as a commercial people.¡±
In Sanskrit books, we constantly read of merchants, traders, and men engrossed in commercial pursuits. Manu Smriti, one of the oldest books in the world, lays down laws to govern all commercial disputes having reference to seaborne traffic as well as the inland and overland commerce. Traders and merchants are frequently introduced in the Hindu drama. In Shakuntala we learn of the importance attached to commerce, where it is stated ¡°that a merchant named Dhanvriddhi, who had extensive commerce had been lost at sea and had left a fortune of many millions.¡± In Nala and Damyanti, too, we meet with similar incidents. Sir William Jones is of the opinion that the Hindus ¡°must have been navigators in the age of Manu, because bottomry (marine insurance) is mentioned in it.¡± In the Ramayana, the practice of bottomry is distinctly noticed. Lord Mountstuart Elphinstone says: ¡°The Hindus navigated the ocean as early as the age of Manu¡¯s code because we read in it of men well acquainted with sea voyages.
According to Max Dunker, ship-building was known in ancient India about 2000 B.C. It is thus clear that the Hindus navigated the ocean from the earliest times and that they carried on trade on an extensive scale with all the important nations of the Old World.
(source: History of Antiquity ¨C By Max Dunker volume IV).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:55 AM
With Phoenicia the Indians enjoyed trade from the earliest times. In the tenth century B.C., Soloman of Israel and Hiram of Tyre sent ships to India, whence they carried away ivory, sandalwood, apes, peacocks, gold, silver, precious stones, etc., which they purchased from the tribe of Ophir. Now Ptolemy says there was a country called Abhira at the mouth of the River Indus. This shows that some people called Abhir must have been living there in those days. We find a tribe called the ¡°Abhir¡± still living in Kathyawar, which must, therefore, be the Ophir tribe mentioned above. Christian Lassen (1800-1876) author of Indische Alterthumskunde vol I p. 354, thinks ¡°Ophir¡± was a seaport on the south west coast of India. Mrs. Manning says it was situated on the western coast of India.
Among the things sent by the Hindus to Solomon and Hiram were peacocks. Now, these birds were nowhere to be found in those days except in India, where they have existed from the earliest times. ¡°We frequently meet in old Sanskrit poetry with sentences like these: ¡®Peacocks unfolding in glittering glory all their green and gold; ¡®peacocks dancing in wild glee at the approach of rain;¡¯ peacocks around palaces glittering on the garden walls.¡¯ Ancient sculptures, too show the same delight in peacocks, as may be seen, for instance, in graceful bas-reliefs on the gates of Sanchi or in the panels of an ancient palace in Central India, figured in Colonel Tod¡¯s Rajastathan p. 405. ¡°The word for peacock in Hebrew is universally admitted to be foreign; and Gesenius, Sir Emerson Tennent, and Max Muller appear to agree with Christian Lassen in holding that this word as written in Kings and Chronicles is derived from the Sanskrit language.
With regard to ivory, it was largely used in India, Assyria, Egypt, Greece and Rome. Elephants are indigenous in India and Africa, and ivory trade must be either of Indian origin or African. But the elephants were scarcely known to the ancient Egyptians, and C Lassen decides that elephants were neither used nor tamed in ancient Egypt. In ancient India, they were largely used and tamed. All the kings processions and battles have elephants mentioned in them. The elephant is the emblem of royalty and a sign of rank and power. The god Indra, too has his ¡®Airawat.¡¯ The Sanskrit name for domestic elephant is ibha, and in the bazaars of India ibha was the name by which the elephant¡¯s tusks were sold. In ancient Egypt, ivory was known by the name of ebu.
It would be interesting to many to learn that ¡°it was in India that the Greeks first became acquainted with sugar.¡± Sugar bears a name derived from Sanskrit. With the article the name traveled into Arabia and Persia, and thence became established in the languages of Europe.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:55 AM
Samuel Maunder (1785-1849) in his The Treasury of History wrote: ¡°In the reign of Seleucidas, too, there was an active trade between India and Syria.¡± Indian iron and colored cloths and rich apparels were imported in Babylon and Tyre in ships from India. There were also commercial routes to Phoenicia, through, Persia. Lord Mountstuart Elphinstone says: ¡°The extent of the Indian trade under the first Ptolemies is a well known fact in history.¡± Vincent Smith observes that in the Book of Genesis, ¡°a caravan of camels loaded with the spices of India and balm and myrrh of Hadramaut.¡± John Forbes Royle in his book Ancient Hindu Medicine p. 119, observes that myrrh is called bal by the Egyptians, while its Sanskrit name is bola, bearing a resemblance which leaves no doubt as to its Indian manufacture.
Of the products of the loom, silk was more largely imported from India into ancient Rome than either in Egypt or Greece. ¡°It was so alluring the Roman ladies,¡± says a writer, ¡°that it sold for its weight in gold.¡± This is confirmed by the elder Pliny, who complained that vast sums of money were annually absorbed by commerce with India. ¡°We are assured on undisputed authority that the Romans remitted annually to India, a sum equivalent to 4,000,000 pounds to pay for their investments, and that in the reign of Ptolemies 125 sails of Indian shipping were at one time lying in the ports whence Egypt, Syria, and Rome itself were supplied with the products of India.¡±
(source: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan: or the Central and Western Rajput States of India - By Colonel James Tod p. 221).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:56 AM
Agarthachides, who lived upwards of 300 years before the time of Periplus, noticed the active commercial intercourse kept up between Yemen and Pattala ¨C a seaport town, in Sindh. Pattala in Sanskrit means a ¡°commercial town.¡± ¡°which circumstance, if it is true, says Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeran ¡°would prove the extreme antiquity of the navigation carried on by the Indus.¡±
Max Dunker wrote: ¡°Trade existed between the Indians and Sabaens on the coast of south Arabia before the 10th century B.C. ¨C the time according to some when Manu lived. In the days of Alexander, when the Macedonian general, Nearchus, was entering the Persian Gulf, Muscat was pointed out to him as the principal mart for Indian products which were transmitted thence to Assyria.
Egypt was not the only part of Africa with which the Hindus traded in olden days. The eastern coast of Africa called Zanibar and the provinces situated on the Red Sea carried on an extensive trade with ancient India. Myos Hormos, was the chief emporium of Indian commerce on the Red Sea. Of the trade with Zanzibar, Periplus gives us pretty full information. He says: ¡°Moreover, indigenous products such as corn, rice, butter, oil of seasamum, coarse and fine cotton goods, and cane-honey (sugar) are regularly exported from the interior of Ariaka (Konkan), and from Barygaza (Baroucha/Broach) to the opposite coast.¡±
This trade is also noticed by Arrian, who adds that ¡°this navigation was regularly managed.¡±
Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeran (1760-1842) says, it is a well known fact that the banians or Hindu merchants were in the habit of traversing the oceans and settling in foreign countries. The Eastern countries with which ancient India traded were chiefly China, Trangangetic Peninsula and Australia. Professor Heeran says that ¡°the second direction, which the trade of India took was towards the East, that is, to the Ultra-Gangetic Peninsula, comprising Ava Mallaca, etc. The Hindus themselves were in the habit of constructing the vessels in which they navigated the coast of Coromandel (Cholamandel), and also made voyages to the Ganges and the peninsula beyond it. These ships bore different names according to their sizes.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:57 AM
Land Trade
As regards the trade with central and northern Asia, we are told that ¡°the Indians make expeditions for commercial purposes into the golden desert Ideste, desert of Cobi, in armed companies of a thousand or two thousand men. But, according to a report, they do not return home for three or four years.¡± The Takhti Suleman, or the stone tower mentioned by Ptolemy and Ctesias, was the starting point for Hindu merchants who went to China.
Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeran says: ¡°By means of this building it is easy to determine the particular route as well as the length of time employed by the Hindu merchants in their journey to China. If we assume Cabul, or rather Bactria, as their place of departure, the expedition would take a north-easterly direction as far as the forty-first degree of the north latitude. It would then have to ascend the mountains, and so arrive at the stone tower through the defile of Hoshan, or Owsh. From thence the route led by Cashgar, beyond the mountains to the borders of the great desert of Cobi, which it traversed probably through Khotan and Aksu (the Casia and Auxazia of Ptolemy). From these ancient towns the road lay through Koshotei to Se-chow, on the frontiers of China, and thence to Pekin, a place of great antiquity. The whole distance amounts to upwards of 2,500 miles.¡±
Foreign trade of a nation presupposes development of its internal trade. Specially is this true of a large country like India, with its varied products, vast population and high civilization.
Christian Lassen (1800-1876) of Paris considers it remarkable that the Hindus themselves discovered the rich, luxurious character of India¡¯s products; many of them are produced in other countries, but remained unnoticed until sought for by foreigners, where as the most ancient Hindus had a keen enjoyment in articles of taste and luxury. Rajas and other rich people delighted in sagacious elephants, swift horses, splendid peacocks, golden decorations, exquisite perfumes, pungent peppers, ivory, pearls, gems, gold etc. and consequently caravans were in continued requisition to carry down these and innumerable other matters between the north and the south, and the west and the east of their vast and varied country. These caravans, were met at border stations and about ports by western caravans or ships bound to or from Tyre and Egypt or to or from the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.¡±
Strabo, Plutarch, and Apollodoras agree in their statements that India had considerable trade roads in all directions, with mile stones, and was provided with inns for travelers. And these ¡°roads¡± says Heeran, ¡°were planted with trees and flowers.¡±
Active internal commerce was carried on in northern India along the course of the Ganges. Here was the royal highway extending from Taxila on the Indus to Patliputra (in Bihar) and which was 10,000 stadia in length, according to Strabo.
Periplus, too, after saying that ¡°the Ganges and its tributary streams were the grand commercial routes of northern India,¡± adds that the ¡°rivers of the Southern Peninsula also were navigated.¡±
According to Arrian, the commercial intercourse between the eastern and western coasts were carried on in country built ships. Periplus again says that ¡°in Dachhanabades (Dakshina Patha in Sanskrit, or the Deccan) there are two very distinguished and celebrated marts, named Tagara and Pluthama, whence merchandise was bought down to Barygaza (Barauch). Ozene (Ujjain) was one of the chief marts for internal traffic, and supplied the neighboring country with all kinds of merchandise.
The Encyclopedia Britannica says: ¡°It (India) exported its most valuable produce, its diamonds, its aromatics, its silks, and its costly manufactures. The country, which abounded in those expensive luxuries, was naturally reputed to be the seat of immense riches, and every romantic tale of its felicity and glory was readily believed. In the Middle Ages, an extensive commerce with India was still maintained through the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea; and its precious produce, imported into Europe by the merchants of Venice, confirmed the popular opinion of its high refinement and its vast wealth.¡±
(source: Hindu Superiority ¨C By Har Bilas Sarda p 405-426).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 05:57 AM
Wealth
If history proves anything, it proves that in ancient times, India was the richest country in the world. The fact that she has always been the cynosure of all eyes, Asiatic or European, that people of less favored climes have always cast longing looks on her glittering treasures, and that the ambition of all conquerors has been to possess India, prove that she has been reputed to be the richest country in the world. Her sunny climate, unrivalled fertility, matchless mineral resources and world-wide exports in ancient times helped to accumulate in her bosom the wealth which made her the happy hunting grounds of adventurers and conquerors.
Strabo (c. 63 BC-3 BC) Greek historian in his book Geography II, 5, 12. Describing the location of India and calls it ¡°the greatest if all nations and the happiest in lot.¡±
(source: India and World Civilization By D. P. Singhal Pan Macmillan Limited. 1993. p. 385).
Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeran (1760-1842) says: ¡°India has been celebrated even in the earliest times for her riches.¡± The wealth, splendor and prosperity of India had made a strong impression on the mind of Alexander the Great, and that when he left Persia for India, he told his army that they were starting for that ¡°Golden India¡± where there was endless wealth, and that what they had seen in Persia was as nothing compared to the riches of India. Chamber¡¯s Encyclopedia says¡± ¡°India has been celebrated during many ages for its wealth.¡± The writer of the article ¡°Hindustan¡± in the Encyclopedia Britannica remarks that India ¡°was naturally reputed to be the seat of immense riches.¡± Milton voiced the popular belief when he sang of the wealth of India:
¡°High on a throne of royal state which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind (India)
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold.¡±
To Shake the Pagoda Tree
William Finch who came to India in 1608-11, first described Hindu temples as "pagods, which are stone images of monstrous men feareful to behold. He mentioned the temples in Ajmer, "three faire Pagodes richly wrought with inlayd works, adorned richly with jewels. Domingo Paes has left a valuable account of the great Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. He saw outside the city very beautiful pagodas, the chief among them was the temple of Vitthalasvamin which was begun by Krsnadeva Raya. Edward Terry, the chaplain to Sir Thomas Roe, King James's emissary described the temple of Nagarkot as 'most richly set forth, both scaled and paved with plate of pure gold." The wealth of the temples stirred Jean Thevenot imagination and he wrote about the temples of Benares and Puri that 'nothing can be more magnificent than these Pagodes...by reason of the quantity of gold and many jewels, wherewith they are adorned."
Most foreigners came to India in search of her fabulous wealth. No traveler found India poor until the nineteenth century, but foreign merchants and adventurers sought her shores for the almost fabulous wealth, which they could there obtain.
'To shake the pagoda tree' became a phrase, somewhat similar to our modern expression 'to strike oil' or to get rich quick.
(source: Much Maligned Monsters: A History of European Reactions to Indian Art - By Partha Mitter p. 1 - 45).
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:21 AM
Production Technology and Mechanical Engineering
QUOTE:
"Many of the advances in the sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India centuries ago."
- Grant Duff
British Historian of India
We have been told through Indian as well as foreign literary sources that in ancient times, commodities like sugar, palm oil, coconut oil, cotton cloth, clarified butter, cast iron, tin sheets, copper vessels, dyes and pigments like cinnabar (ochre), indigo and lac, perfumes like sandalwood oil, musk tamarind, costus, macir, camphor, and even crude glass crockery were being exported from India.(The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea - Travelsand Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant in the First Century, Translated from the Greek and Annoted by Wilfred H. Schoff, Longmans Green and Co. New York, 1912)
These items are not gifts of nature, their manufacture involves processing to effect chemical changes in their properties notably in the case of sugar, glass, metals and perfumes. Thus some kind of chemical engineering must have existed in India in those times i.e. about 2000 to 2500 years ago. Alongwith this chemical processing, some physical apparatus would have been used. This presumes the existence of at least a rudimentary knowledge that in today's terminology would be called 'mechanical engineering'.
The earliest recorded use of copperware in India has been around 3000 B.C. the findings at Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa, bear this out.
The earliest documented observation of smelting of metals in India is by Greek Historians in the 4th Century B.C
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-21 06:23 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:30 AM
No doubt, the chemical and mechanical engineering would have been very rudimentary by today's standards but nevertheless it would have been chemical and mechanical engineering of some standard as is evident from the following references about the quality of Indian products in foreign literature of those times.
When referring to India, the author of the Greek text Periplus, which is dated around the 1st century A.D. has said, "There is a river near it called the Ganges" .... "On its bank is a market town which has the same name as the river, Ganges. Through this place are brought malabathrum and Gangetic spikenard and pearls and muslins of the finest sorts, which are called Gangetic. It is said that there are gold mines near these places, and there is a gold coin which is called caltis. And just opposite this river there is an island in the ocean, the last part of the inhabited world towards the east, under the rising sun itself, it is called Chryse; and it has the best tortoise-shell of all the places on the Erythrean Sea"2
The Periplus further states that "Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another kingdom, the Pandian. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea." ... "They send large ships to these market towns on account of the great quantity and bulk of pepper and malabathrum. There are imported here, in the first place, a great quantity of coin; topaz, thin clothing," "fine linen, antimony, coral, crude glass, copper,tin, lead; wine, not much, but as much as at Barygaza; realgar and orpiment; and wheat enough for sailors," "There is exported pepper which is produced in quantity only in one region near these markets, a district called Cottonara.
Besides this there are exported great quantities of fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, spikenard from the Ganges, malabathrum from the places in the interior,transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds and sapphires"3
About other commodities the Periplus says, "The voyage to all these far-side market towns is made from Egypt about the month of July, that is Epiphi. And ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across the sea, from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the products" "wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil, cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and gridles, and honey from the reed called Sacchari." 4
Thus we see that in a rambling manner, the Periplus refers to the "muslins of the finest sorts," "fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth" "crude glass", "coins", etc'., apart from many other commodities that were exported from India. Other western historians, and traveller-adventurers like Megasthanes, Strabo, Ptolemy, Fa Hien, Huen Tsang, Pliny, Marco Polo, Al Beruni, Ibn Batuta, etc., have also enumerated the various commodities that were produced and exported by India.
The following is a list of various commodities that were exported from India in ancient times. The present day English names of most of these commodities have originated from Sanskrit. This list has been compiled from references to India made by Western, Chinese and Arab historians in ancient and medieval ages. (LIst to be included shortly)
This mirrorwork dates back to to the12th Century A.D.
But smelting of metals and derivation of alloys was done since 3000 B.C. in ancient India
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:34 AM
We shall now have a detailed look at some of these products which were imported from ancient India. We will begin with Perfumes.
THE DISTILLATION OF PERFUMES
The distillation of scents, perfumes and fragrant liquids and ointments was one area where the knowledge of chemistry was applied in India since ancient times. In fact the very word 'scent' which is of unexplained origin according to the Oxford Dictionary, is possibly derived from the Sanskrit term Sugandha which literally means 'good or aromatic paste'. This word could have been transmitted to European languages through the Greek langua which has borrowed (and lent) many wor from Sanskrit. Other instances of such transmission are the English words li 'cotton' which is derived from the Sanskrit Karpasa or the word 'sugar' derived frc the Sanskrit Sharkara, etc. Many present day perfumes had existed
India since ancient times and perhaps had originated here. In ancient times perfumes and fragrant ointments were of two typ viz., Teertha (liquids) and Gandha (slurries or ointments). During the coronation Kings or durlng any auspicious occasion person was sprinkled with aromatic oils. Fragrant ointments based on sandalwood were applied during ceremonial bathing. Even today during some festivals like Diwali aromatic slurries and pastes are prepared out of a powder called Sugandhi. Utne and are used during the ceremonial bath which is taken during that festival. Even in other religious rites, Sandalwood, Ochre and Camphor are traditionally used by Hindus.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:34 AM
SANDALWOOD: Since very early times Sandalwood and Sandalwood oil were items of export. The Greek text of the 1st century A.D., Periplus mentions sandalwood as one of the items being imported from India. The word Sandal (wood) is derived from the Latin terms Santalum Album or Santalacae. These terms used by the Romans to describe sandalwood were, according to the Oxford Dictionary, derived from the Sanskrit term Chandana, for sandalwood.
The Sandalwood tree is native to India and is found mainly in South-western India in t he state of Karnataka. Sandalwood has been a known item of export from India since ancient times. Authors of Sanskrit texts on botany which in Sanskrit is called Vanaspati-Shastra had classified Sandalwood into three types viz. white sandalwood Shrikanda (which perhaps is an abbreviation of the term Shewta-Chandana ), the second is yellow sandalwood or Pitta-Chandana and the last is red sandalwood or RaktaChandana
The reference to Sandalwood in the Periplus is perhaps the earliest available western reference to Sandalwood. It has been mentioned in later times by Comas Indiwpleustes in the 6th century A.D. as Tzandana and thereafter it is frequently referred to by Arab traders. Oil was also extracted from Sandalwood. This oil which was a thick but refined liquid was extracted in specially constructed oil mills called Teyl-Peshani and Teylena-Lip. The oil extracted from these mills was a thick, dark yellow liquid. Alongwith Sandalwood, the Sandalwood oil was also an item of export from India during ancient times. Sandalwood oil was mainly bought by the Romans between the 1st and 3rd centuries A.D.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:35 AM
MUSK: Musk is also a fragrant substance which is secreted in the gland by a male musk-deer. Musk is redish-brown in colour and is used as a base for perfumes and also as an ingredient for soaps to give it a musky smell. In Sanskrit, Musk is known as Muska which means the scortum i.e. the pouch of skin containing the testicles of the deer. The English term Musk originates from the Sanskrit term Muska according to the Oxford Dictionary.
The Sanskrit word Muska is perhaps derived from the words Maunsa or Masa which means 'flesh'. In Sanskrit, other words used for musk are Kasturi, Kastutrika and Mruga-Nabhi. The last term literally means 'a deer's navel'.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:35 AM
TAMARIND: Tamarind is a fruit whose acid pulp is used in the making of cooling or medicinal drinks. The English word Tamarind is derived from the Latin term 'Tamarindus Indica' which is derived from the Arabic term Tamr-Hindi which means 'Dates from India'. The Arabs were familiar with only one form of fruit i.e. Dates, which grow in the desert. Thus when they came across another fruit which they could use in the making of cool refreshing drinks they named it 'Dates from India' Tamr-Hindi; after the country from where they had obtained the fruit. In Sanskrit, Tamarind is called Chincha and Amlica. The latter term is derived from the word Amlica which means acidic. This name is given to Tamarind due to the acidic odour and juice that it has. This fruit was an item of export from India since ancient times. The fact that it originated in India is evident from the name Tamr-Hindi which the Arabs gave it.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:36 AM
CAMPHOR: Camphor is a whitish translucent crystalline volatile substance with aromatic smell and bitter taste. It is also used in pharmacy as a medicinal drug. The word camphor is derived from the Latin word 'Camphora' which comes from the Arabic term Kafur, which ultimately originated from the Sanskrit term Karpuram, according to the Oxford Dictionary.
The Sanskrit words for Camphor, apart from Karpuram are Hima-Valuka which literally means 'Snow-sand' and Chandraka which means 'like a moon' perhaps because it is whitish and translucent. Camphor was also an item exported from India since ancient times. The Camphor that was exported was not in its natural form but it was refined and cut into strips and square pieces before being loaded for export. That it was mainly obtained from India is established by the fact that the name chosen for this commodity was the corrupted version of the original Sanskrit term. Even today Camphor is used by devout Hindus as an incense during prayer.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:36 AM
SPIKENARD: Spikenard was a costly aromatic ointment extracted since ancient times from an Indian plant known in Sanskrit as Nardostachys Jatamansi which perhaps means 'the braid of hair (Jataa) of (Narada). The English word Spikenard is derived from the Greek term Nardostakhus and the Latin term Spica Nardi; both the terms are derived from the Sanskrit term Nardostachys Jatamansi. This plant has purplish-yellow flower heads and is very rarely found. Its smell is quite pleasing and hence it had been in great demand since ancient times.
In Sanskrit, other terms used to refer to this plant are, Jatila which means 'difficult', Tapasvini which literally means 'concentration and devotion'. These words used to describe Spikenard indicate that it was very difficult to obtain and cultivate this plant. In India this herb was available only in the Himalayas. Spikenard, which is aromatic and bitter, yields on distillation a pleasant smelling oil.
In India, it had been used since ancient times as an aromatic adjunct in the preparation of medicinal oils and was popularly believed to increase th growth and blackness of hair. The Roman historian Pliny observes the Spikenard was considered very precious i Rome and it was stored in alabaster boxes by persons of eminence.
Another aromatic herb exported from ar cient India was the Nard. It is a root of th ginger-grass found in western Punjab an Baluchistan. The Nard is found in semi-aril areas and it seems to have been found by Alexander in Gedrosia (Baluchistan) when hi army unknowingly trampled the plant whil on march and this resulted in a sweet pel fume which we are told "was diffused fa and wide over the land by the trampling". The Nard is known in Latin as Cymbopogon Jwarancusa the word Cusa is perhaps de rived from the Sanskrit word Kusha fo grass. The use of the word grass to refer tz Nard is perhaps because of its being confused by the Romans with other aromatic grasses like lemon grass, gingergrass, citronella, etc., which also yield aromatic oils.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:37 AM
COSTUS: Costus is the root of the plans Saussurea Lappa, a tall perennial plant growing on the open slopes of the vale or Kashmir and other high valleys of that region. The plant is found at elevations ol 8000 to 13000 feet. It was used by the Romans as a culinary spice as also as a perfume.
This root was dug up and cut into small pieces and shipped to Rome and China. The root is generally of the size of a finger wit' a yellowish woody part and a whitish barl It is said that Seleucus Callinicus had ot tained Costus from India and sent it as gift to the Milesians.6 The Romans also re ferred to costus as radix, the root as distirguished from Nard which was called folio the leaf. The price of Costus in Rome is stated by Pliny to have been 5 denarii per pound.
India still exports Costus and today the collection of Costus is a state monopoly. In Kashmir the product is used by shawl merchants to protect their fabrics from moths. The Indian origin of Costus is evident from the fact that the word is derived from the Sanskrit term Kustha which means 'that which stands in the earth'. This word was perhaps used as Costus was a root.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:37 AM
MACIR:
Macir is mentioned by Dioscorides as an aromatic bark. Pliny says that it was brought from India. He describes it as a red bark growing upon a large root, which bears the name Macir from the tree that produced it. He prescribed a mixture of this bark with honey as a cure for dysentery. The word Macir is today neither found in the English nor the Sanskrit Dictionaries but it has been mentioned in the Periplus on pages 80 and 81.
-The word Macir has been said to have been derived from the Sanskrit word Makara which in India was said to have been used in ancient times as a traditional Ayurvedic remedy for dysentery. Macir seems to have been the root-bark of the tree Holarrhena Antidysentrica which according to the notes appended to the Periplus was found throughout India and Burma in the lower Himalayas upto 3500 feet.
Both the bark and seed of this tree were among the most important medicines in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. According to the notes to the Periplus. "This tree found by the Portuguese was called 'Herba malabarica owing to its great merit in the treatment of dysentery they having found it on the Malabar coast. The preparation, generally in the form of a solid or liquid extract, or of a decoction, is astringent, anti-dysenteric an anthelmintic. The seeds yield a fixed oil, and the wood ash is used in dyeing.'' Thus this commodity which was exported from India in early times had multiple uses.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:38 AM
THE MAKING OF DYES AND PIGMENTS
Many dyes and pigments were extracted in ancient India from vegetable and mineral bases. The Greek historian Ktesias who lived in the 4th century B.C. at the Persian Court has observed that "Among the Indians are found certain insects about the size of beetles and of a colour so red that at first sight one might mistake them for cinnabar. Their legs are of extraordinary length and soft to the touch. They grow upon trees which produce amber, and subsist upon their fruit. The Indians collect them for the sake of the purple dye, which they yield when crushed. This dye is used for tinting with purple not only their outer and under-garments, but also any other substance where a purple hue is required. Robes tinted with this purple are sent to the Persian King, for Indian purple is thought by the Persians be marvellously beautiful and far superior to their own." Ktesias also says that the Indian dye is deeper and more brilliant than the renowned Lydian Purple.
We will discuss some of these dyes which were extracted in ancient India, e.g. indigo, lac, ochre, copal, anline, in the following pages.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:38 AM
LAC:
Lac is a resinous substance secreted on trees by an insect called the Lac insect. This is used as a protective covering and as varnish on wooden furniture. According to the Oxford Dictionary the English word lac is derived from the Sanskrit term Laksha which itself is derived from the word Raksha which in Sanskrit means protection. This was perhaps as lac was used as a protective covering. Lac was also used as a dye. In ancient times it was used by women for dyeing nails and palms. It was also used to dye cloth. The process of dyeing cloth with lac was termed Vastra-ranga-kruta which literally means 'to give colour to cloth' . In doing this screens were used to hold cloth in place while the dye was being applied.
In ancient times, lac was used both as a dye and a resin but with the introduction of aniline, the demand for lac as a dye became less. It is today used mainly as a resin called 'shellac', which is melted into thin flakes and used to make varnish.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:38 AM
OCHRE:
Ochre is a pigment varying from light yellow to orange and brown. It is a mineral of clay and hydrated ferric oxide. The old name of ochre is cinnabar which was perhaps derived from the Sanskrit term Sindhura. According to the Century Dictionary, the word cinnabar originated from the Persian word zinjafr, which is a corruption of the Sanskrit Sindhura.
Ochre (or cinnabar) was used as a dye for cloth and also as a paint for walls in Roman times. In India it was, and still is used to paint images of Gods and as a caste mark applied on the forehead called tilaka.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:39 AM
COPAL:
Copal is a resin extracted from a tree which in Latin is named Vateria Indica. This tree is to be found in the Western Ghats (Hills) of India. The word copal is not to be found today in the Oxford Dictionary, but according to the Periplus, " it is derived from the Sanskrit term "Kankamon".
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:39 AM
ANILINE: This is a blue coloured dye obtained from coal tar. This was being extracted in ancient India and was Transmitted to the west by the Arabs. It was called Neel or Neelam in Sanskrit. The Arabs named it AI Nil or An Nil from which we have the English word Aniline. This is corroborated by the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:40 AM
INDIGO: Indigo is also a blue coloured dye obtained from a plant named Indigofera. In ancient times, indigo was used both as a dye and as a medicine. The word indigo is derived from the Greek word Indikon which means 'from India'. In Sanskrit it is referred to as Neelam.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:40 AM
THE SMELTING OF METALS
According to information culled out from various Roman and Greek texts, metals like iron, tin, copper and brass were imported from India. These texts say that the metals were not being imported as an ore but as sheets. This presumes that the ore must have been smelted and cast into sheets in India before it was exported. References in Sanskrit literature also support this.
According to a Greek writer named Ktesias who lived in Persia in the 4th century B.C., the smelting of metals was undertaken in India in those days. He has written that, "Every year a spring filled itself with fluid gold which was drawn from it in one hundred earthen pitchers. It was necessary that they should be of clay, because the gold afterwards congealed, and the pitchers had to be broken in order to get it out." "Each pitcher contained one talent of gold".
On this remark of Ktesias, McCrindle, who has translated Ktesias' writings, has noted that "The sense of this passage can only be that auriferous ores were melted, and that the gold obtained from them was drawn out in a fluid state. That there was a spring, must be a misapprehension, and we must imagine instead that there was a cistern prepared to receive gold."... "If this supposition is right, it follows that the Indians knew how to extract gold from the ore by melting''.
We shall now look into some of the metals that were being exported from India.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:40 AM
IRON:
Marco Polo has mentioned that iron and Ondanique was sold in the markets of Kerman in Iran. The word Ondanique has been interpreted as a corruption of the Persian word Hundwaniy which meant 'Indian Steel'.
Even earlier, during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, Ferrum Indium appears in the list of dutiable articles. There also exists an ancient Greek chemical treatise entitled "On the Tempering of Indian Steel". Edrisi has noted that "The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron. They have also workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world. It is impossible to find anything to surpass the edge that you get from Indian Steel". This passage which has been quoted in the notes to the Periplus on page 71 proves beyond doubt, in the words of a foreign historian, that the art of smelting and casting iron was well developed in ancient India.
In ancient times, in India, Loha-churna meant iron ore; Kupya- shala and Sandhaani meant an iron foundry'. A furnace was called Chuli or Agnikund. Wrought iron was called Lohabandhan, iron bars were called Loha-pindaha. Smelting of iron was called Loha-drava-Karan (literally, liquefaction of Iron). Loha-chinha meant an iron mould and Lohakaraka meant a smith or ironmonger.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:41 AM
TIN:
In ancient tunes tin was known as Kassiteros in the Greek language. This word was derived from the early Sanskrit word Kasthira for tin. Even today in some Indian languages tin and aluminium are called Kathila which is derived from the Sanskrit word Kasthira.
In ancient India the value of tin for hardening copper was recognised and the art of tempering tin with other metals was developed. The fact is corroborated by the comments of the Greek historians (quoted below in the section on Copper) regarding the excellent tempering of various metals that had been practised in India.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:41 AM
COPPER:
Copper has been mentioned in the Periplus as an article of export from India. In those days copper ore was extracted in a big way and it was smelted locally in South India and Rajputana, according to the Periplus.
Philostratus of Lemnos, in about 230 A.D. has mentioned a shrine in Taxila in India, in which were hung pictures on copper tablets representing the feats of Alexander and Porus. In the words of Philostratus "The various figures were portrayed in a mosaic of orichalcum, silver, gold, and oxidised copper, but the weapons in iron. The metals were so ingeniously worked into one another that the pictures which they formed were comparable to the productions of the most famous Greek artists''.
In ancient India copper was also known as Tamara, copper plate was called Tamara-Patra. Tamrakar meant a copper smith and Tamara-pana meant a copper coin.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:42 AM
BRASS:
Brass is not an original metal obtained from natural ore, it is a composite metal found as an alloy of copper and zinc. From the above quotation of Philostratus it is evident that in ancient India the art of welding metals together was known. We cannot conclusively say that Brass (called Pitalam in Sanskrit) was manufactured in ancient India but the fact that their were Sanskrit equivalents for copper (Tamara, Kasthira), zinc (Dasta) an alloy which was called Mishradhatu (mixed metal) Nyunata (novelty) and Du----aha (impurity) supports the fact that Brass, or a Brass-like metal, was smelted in ancient India.
Thus it was recognised that an alloy would be a mixture of metals, that it would be novelty; and that due to the mixing of metals, the resultant alloy would be impure in the sense that it would not be a metal derived from a natural mineral ore.
It is possible that brass was used for decorative purposes due to its likeness to gold. Thus we have the terms like Pitalam-Pushpakam, Pitalam Kusuman janam and Pitalam-Pushpaketu which mean efflorescence created from brass. The ornamental use of brass in ancient India is also evident from the quotation of Philosotratus given above in the section on copper.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:42 AM
CORUNDUM:
This unfamiliar word connotes crystallised aluminium oxide of various colours having great hardness and used as gems and also as an abrasive. We have been told that certain gems were used to cut metals in ancient India, corundum, or Kuruvinda in Sanskrit, was one such gem. Corundum was also exported from India to foreign countries since ancient times. The fact that India was the main source of this item is evident from the name Corundum given to it which according to the Oxford Dictionary is derived from the Sanskrit word Kuruvinda.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:43 AM
NOWSHADDER:
This is another unfamiliar term which means chloride of ammonium. This was also being obtained from ancient India. The word Nowshadder is also derived from a Sanskrit root word 'Narasara'.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:43 AM
BERYL:
This is a mineral species of a transparent precious stone varying from pale green to yellow in colour. This was one of the items of export from India during early times. The word Beryl is said to have been derived from the Sanskrit term Vaidurya.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:44 AM
COPAL:
This is an amorphous quartz like form of hydrated silica, some types of opal are semi-translucent and appear like glass. This item is recorded to have been exported in ancient times from India. The English word Opal has been derived from the Sanskrit term Upala a fact which is corroborated by the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:44 AM
THE PROCESSING OF AGRO-BASED PRODUCTS
Indians in ancient times had invented methods of extracting oil from agro-products like, coconut, palm, sesame, etc., for doing this, oil presses and oil mills were used. The oil was refined through the use of special sieves. Sugar was also being manufactured. The making of sugar presumed the existence of a process of vaporisation, condensation and crystallisation of sugar alongwith the apparatus like a mill, a sugarcane press, a furnace, etc., Various agro-based products were made in India and exported abroad since the last 2000 to 2500 years. To support this claim we have the observations of foreign historians and also references in Sanskrit literature.
A Greek historians named Ktesias whom we referred to earlier and who was a contemporary of Hippokrates, has written that, "There is bred in the Indian river a worm, like in appearance to that which is found in the fig, but seven cubits more or less in length, while its thickness is such that only a boy ten years old could hardly clasp it within the circuit of his arms.'' In this passage Ktesias is obviously referring to the Indian python, he further says that, "For catching this worm a large hook is employed, to which a kid or a lamb is fastened by chains of iron. The worm being landed, the captors hang up its carcass, and placing vessels underneath it leave it thus for thirty days. All this time oil drops from it, as much being got as would fill ten Attic Kotylai. At the end of thirty days they throw away the worm, and preserving the oil they take it to the king of the Indians, and to him alone, for no subject is allowed to get a drop of it. This oil (like fire) sets everything ablaze over which it is poured and it consumes not alone wood but even animals. The flames can be quenched only by throwing over them a great quantity of clay, and that of a thick consistency".
(Quoted from Ancient India as described by Ktesias the Knidian, Translated from Greek by J.W. McCrindle, Trubner and Co., London 1882, P. 28.)
The above passage describes one method of extracting the body oil from a python which we are told had an inflammable quality and which, we are told through our epics, was used in warfare, in ancient India in Agniban or Agniastra. This word dhanikru seems to have been derived from creek commentator has also described other methods of extracting oils from trees which were used as lubricants and perfumes.
He has said that " there are certain trees in India as tall as the cedar or the cypress, having leaves like those of the date palm, only some what Broader, but having no shoots sprouting from the stems . They produce a flower like the male laurel, out no fruit. In the Indian language they are called Karpion, " "These trees are scarce. There oozes from them an oil in drops, which are wiped off from the stem with wool, from which they are afterwards wrung out and received into alabaster boxes of stone. The oil is in colour of a faint red, of a somewhat thick consistency. Its smell is sweetest in all the world, and is said to diffuse itself to a distance of five stadia around. The privilege of possessing this perfume belongs only c the king and the members of the royal family We shall see below the various agro based products that were manufactured and exported by ancient Indians.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:45 AM
SUGAR:
"Honey from the reed called saccharin This is the first mention of the word sugar in western literature according to the notes appended to the Periplus. It was known to Pliny as a medicine. The word sugar is derived from the word quoted above Sacchari which means sugar in Prakrit. In the Sanskrit original it is called Sharkara, from which we have the Arabic Sukkar and the Latin Saccharum.
Most modern languages reflect the Arabic form, e.g. we have the Portuguese: Assucar, Spanish Azucar, French: Sucre, German: Zuker and English: Sugar.
In Latin the Sugarcane plant is termed Saccharum Officinarum, in Sanskrit it is called Sharkara Ikshu. According to the Periplus, sugarcane was first cultivated and crushed in India. Apart from sugar, jaggery (Guda) was also exported. In ancient times in India the process of crystallisation of sugar was known as Sphatika-rupena-dhanikru, in which Sphatika means 'crystal', rupena means 'to form' and Kru in the verb Kru which means 'to do'. The Sieves that were used to refine the sugarcane slurry before crystallisation were known as Titauha or Chalani in Sanskrit.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:45 AM
COCONUT OIL
PALM OIL:
Palm oil was also an item of export from India alongwith coconut oil. But from Greek texts we find that the commentators confused Coconut oil and Palm oil. Palm fruit in India was Talaha in Sanskrit. From this word we today refer to this tree as Tada in many Indian languages.
SESAME OIL:
Sesame is a herbaceous plant called Sesamum Indium in Latin and Tilaha or Teelaha in Sanskrit. It is known as Til or Teel in many Indian languages. The sesame seeds are rich in oil and sesame oil is used as a cooking medium. In western India during a festival called Makara Sankranti which falls in January, Sweetmeats are prepared from Teel and jaggery.
The fact that sesame oil was first extracted in India is evident from the latin name Sesamum Indium given to it. The word sesame is of oriental origin according to the Oxford Dictionary. The sesame plant was regularly being cultivated in India since ancient times according to the Periplus.
The author of the Periplus has said, Beyond the Gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza modern Broach) and the coast of the country of Ariaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Tambanus and of all India".... "It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths.
Thus according to the author of the Periplus, not sesame seed but the oil extracted from these seeds was exported.
As mentioned in the section on Sandalwood in ancient India, oil mills were known variously as Teyl-Peshani, Teylena-lip and Teylena-Auja. Oil cake was called Teyl-Kuthha or Teela-Kalkam. In this term Teela is- evidently derived from Teelaha, and Kalkaha in Sanskrit which means dirt. There were terms for oil extractor who was called Teylikaha; the bottle in which oil was stored was known as Teyla-Kutu. To refine the oil, sieves were used as in the manufacture of sugar.
Sesame is a herbaceous plant called Sesamum Indium in Latin and Tilaha or Teelaha in Sanskrit. It is known as Til or Teel in many Indian languages. The sesame seeds are rich in oil and sesame oil is used as a cooking medium. In western India during a festival called Makara Sankranti which falls in January, Sweetmeats are prepared from Teel and jaggery.
The fact that sesame oil was first extracted in India is evident from the latin name Sesamum Indium given to it. The word sesame is of oriental origin according to the Oxford Dictionary. The sesame plant was regularly being cultivated in India since ancient times according to the Periplus.
The author of the Periplus has said, Beyond the Gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza modern Broach) and the coast of the country of Ariaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Tambanus and of all India".... "It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths.
Thus according to the author of the Periplus, not sesame seed but the oil extracted from these seeds was exported.
As mentioned in the section on Sandalwood in ancient India, oil mills were known variously as Teyl-Peshani, Teylena-lip and Teylena-Auja. Oil cake was called Teyl-Kuthha or Teela-Kalkam. In this term Teela is- evidently derived from Teelaha, and Kalkaha in Sanskrit which means dirt. There were terms for oil extractor who was called Teylikaha; the bottle in which oil was stored was known as Teyla-Kutu. To refine the oil, sieves were used as in the manufacture of sugar.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:46 AM
CLARIFIED BUTTER:
This commodity was referred to as Butyram in Latin and as Bouturon in Greek. In Sanskrit it is referred to as Ghrutam. Clarified butter as we know, is animal (fat) oil derived from the heating and melting of ordinary utter during which the moisture is evaporated and residual refined oil is deposited. In this Process the butter loses about 25 percent of its bulk. It is made both from cows, and buffaloes' milk, though the latter is richer in fat content.
In ancient Hindu texts, Ghrutam or Ghee is an essential ingredient in most religious rituals. As clarified butter can last longer than ordinary butter it was more suitable as an item of export. according to the notes to the Periplus, clarified utter was exported from India after being enclosed in leather skins or earthen pots, while still hot. This way it could be preserved for many months without the aid of salt or other preservatives.
A European traveller by the name Fryer Las mentioned in the year 1672 that in the deccan he was shown tanks of Ghee which were at that time 400 years old. They had great medicinal value and were highly priced.
Clarified butter according to the Periplus was exported mainly from Barygaza in India. Barygaza is the Greek corruption of the Sanskrit name Bhrigu-Kaccha, the original name of the city of Broach in Gujarat. Even today the state of Gujarat produces large quantities of Ghee and other milk products at Anand and Khaira. Since ancient times Gujarat has been famous for pastoral activities and has been associated with our pastoral cowherd god Srikrishna who we are told spent a large part of his life at Dwarka in Gujarat.
Even the English word 'Butter' is said to have been derived from a Sanskrit root word. According to the notes to the Periplus "Lassen, Oppert and others, following a mention of boutyros by Theophrastus, identify it with asafoetida, byway of the Sanskrit Bhutari " which means 'the enemy of evil spirits'. Thus out of a confusion between the products asafoetida and clarified butter, the name butyron in Greek, Butyrum in Latin and Butter in English could have been derived from the Sanskrit term Bhutari.
(Quoted from Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Anglo-India colloquial Words and Phases, Rout ledge and Kegan Paul. London 1986.)
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:46 AM
COIR:
The word 'coir' has been derived from the Malayalam terms Kayaru which means 'to be twisted' and Kayar which means a rope. These Malayalam terms are perhaps derived from the Sanskrit words Kunchanam or Akunchanam which also mean 'to twist'.
According to Marco Polo, ropes made from an 'Indian nut' were used to bind planks in ships. The Periplus notes that boats were sewed together with ropes. These boats are referred to as Madarata. This word is derived from the Arabic term muddarra'at which means' fastened with palm fibre'.
Jute and hemp were also being exported from India. In fact, the English word jute stems from the Sanskrit word Jataa meaning a braid of hair and one of the words for hemp i.e. Sunna originates from the Sanskrit word Sana according to the Oxford Dictionary.'
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:47 AM
TALIPOT:
This is an unfamiliar English word but it means a fan made of palm leaves. The Talipot was made by weaving together palm leaves and also used in constructing sunshades and roofs for houses in rural India in ancient times.
It was known as Talapatra which means )palm leaf (Tala = palm and patra = leaf). The 'Talipot was exported to the Roman Empire mainly torn Kerala in South India. The English word 'Talipot is derived from the Malayalam term nalipat. In modern Hindi the word used for this commodity is Talpat or Tadpatra which even Today is used as material for roofing in rural areas.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:47 AM
BAMBOO:
This item as we know is also used as building material and also in making furniture. bamboo products as well as Bamboo poles were exported from India since very early times. The Bamboo, according to the Oxford Dictionary derived from the Malayalam word Mambu. But this word is itself derived from the Sanskrit root word Vambha for bamboo. Incidentally another Sanskrit word Stambha which means pillar, comes etymologically close to the word Bamboo. In modern Indian languages the words Khamba (pillar) find Bamboo are still in usage.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:47 AM
LEMON: Lemon fruit and lemon syrup were also manufactured in ancient India and were also exported to Persia and Rome. The exports to Persia were by overland routes but those to Rome went by the Sea. The word lemon itself is derived from the Sanskrit term Nimbuka which is used Modern Hindi as Nimbu or Limbu. The Arabs who many a time were the carriers of Indian products to the Roman Empire pronounced Nimuaka as Lima from which the word was transmitted to various European languages as 'lemon'. This is even attested by the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:48 AM
MALABATHRUM:
This is also an unfamiliar word today, but in earlier times in Latin it meant 'dried leaf of cinnamon'. The name of this item which was exported from India was derived from the Sanskrit term Tamala-pattram. Incidentally the English word cinnamon is also derived from the Sanskrit root word Kurunta. 24 The cultivation and export of cinnamon has be observed by the Greek writer, Ktesias who lived in Persia in the 4th century B.C.
More info:
Malabathrum, also known as Malobathrum or Malabar leaf, is the name used in classical and medieval texts for the leaf of the plant Cinnamomum tamala (sometimes given as Cinnamomum tejpata). In ancient Greece and Rome, the leaves were used to prepare a fragrant oil, called Oleum Malabathri, and were therefore valuable. The leaves are mentioned in the 1st century Greek text Periplus Maris Erytraei as one of the major exports of the Tamil kingdoms of southern India. The name is also used in mediaeval texts to describe the dried leaves of a number of trees of the genus Cinnamomum, which were thought to have medicinal properties.
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-21 07:38 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:48 AM
MUSTARD:
Mustard. seeds were also an item of export in ancient times. Mustard is an agricultural item but in India the seeds were threshed and dehusked before being exported. The English word mustard is also said to have been derived from the Sanskrit word Mugda.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:49 AM
ORANGES:
This fruit is today considered-to be native of the Mediterranean region but in very early times, it was being exported from India. The English word 'orange' is derived from the Sanskrit word Naranga which was transmitted to the west though the Arabs. The Arabs pronounced this word as Naranj as the letter 'g' is absent in Arabic. It is from the Arabic Naranj that the English word Orange is derived, a fact corroborated by the Oxford Dictionary. Even today oranges are widely cultivated in Central India around Nagpur.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:50 AM
THE MANUFACTURE OF TEXTILES
The manufacture of textiles was a well developed activity in India since ancient times. In this section we shall see what was the state of art in ancient India in spinning yarn and weaving of cotton and silk cloth.
COTTON CLOTH:
India is one of the countries where cotton fibre was spun into thread and woven into fabric since a very early time. Archaeological findings at the Indus valley cities indicate that woven cloth was known in India nearly 4000 to 5000 years back, as the Indus culture is dated around 2000 to 3000 years B.C. Baked clay seals depicting the social life of that period have been found on the site of the ruins at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. On some of these seals are depicted men with apparel draped around their bodies. This apparel is shown to have a design which is presumably painted on it. It is possible that this painted cloth was woven out of cotton. These findings on the Indus valley sites are very old and lack any other supporting evidence.
But the Greeks under Alexander who invaded north-western India around 350 B.C. have recorded that they found cotton cloth for the first time in India. Before coming to India, the Greeks had passed through Egypt, Mesopotamia and Persia, but they discovered cotton cloth only in India. The Greeks also knew woven cloth, but the fibre they used was wool and when they saw that the material from which cloth was woven in India grew on trees, they concluded that India was a country- where wool grew on trees. The term cotton-wool for the cotton found on its tree has stuck on till today.
The English term cotton itself perhaps originates from the Sanskrit word for it viz. Karpasa. The Greek term Karpasos and the Latin term Carbasus have evidently been derived from Sanskrit. India continued to produce cotton cloth throughout the areas of history and was an exporter of fine muslin cloth till two hundred years back. The muslin of Dacca had acquired global fame. This industry thrived till the 18th century when British commercial interests considered its existence to be a threat to the factories of Lancashire and killed that art by cutting off the fingers of the masterweavers. But in spite of this, today this art of spinning and weaving fine cotton cloth does survive in isolated corners of the country though it is now on the road to extinction.
But in ancient times this art had been given active encouragement. According to the notes to the Periplus "The manufacture of cotton cloth was at its best in India until very recent times, And the fine Indian muslins were in great demand and commanded high prices, both in the Roman Empire and Medieval Europe. The industry was one of the main factors in the wealth of ancient India".
In ancient India the textile industry was thus well established right from the cleaning of cotton, spinning of yarn, weaving of cloth to the dyeing of cloth. Cotton yarn was referred to as Sutram or Tantuhu, spinning of yarn was termed Taantavaa and Tantakaran, spindles used in doing this were called Tarkuti or Tarkutam. The loom was called Tantra-Vdpaha.
A weaver of cloth was called Tantavayaha-Paha or Patakaara . The activity of weaving was called Tantu-Tantra-Vayaha, Pata-Nirmanam or Pata-Karman. The texture of cloth was called Tantu-Sutra-Gunaha or Taantvam. Textiles or fabrics were called Tantu-Nirmit. The process of dyeing as referred to earlier in the section lac was termed 'Vastra-Ranga-Kruta' which literally means 'to dye cloth'
SILK CLOTH:
Silk did not originate in India, it originated in Mongolia. But since very early times India was on the trade route of silk and the manufacture of silk cloth and the rearing of silkworms had started in India soon after the technique was introduced here from China'. The word Silk is derived from the Mongolian root word Sirkek which means silk, form this we have the Chinese word: Ssi, the Greek: Ser. Latin: Sericum and the English: Silk. In Sanskrit the word used for silk yarn is Kitta-Sutram. The word Kitta is an abbreviation of Kitaka which means a worm.
Thus in ancient times it was known in India that silk yarn is derived from silk worms. In fact silk worms were reared in India and silk yarn and cloth were manufactured and exported. Silk worms were known as Tantu-Kitam meaning Thread worms. Silk cloth imported from China was called Chinaam-Shakam, and locally manufactured silk cloth was called Kaushambaram and Komala, Ambara which literally means sky but was also used to refer to cloth, komala means soft and the word seems to have been used due to the soft texture of silk cloth.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:50 AM
CHINTZ
This is a type of cotton cloth which is fast printed with parti-coloured pattern. This cloth is usually glazed but is relatively cheap. This has been one of the many types of cotton cloth exported from India. The word Chintz is also derived from the Sanskrit word Chitra which means 'picture' or variegated. This origin of the word Chintz is supported by the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:50 AM
SATRANJI:
This word which is still used in modern Indian languages is a corruption of the word Chaturanga. This is so as the game of Chaturanga was in ancient times played on a piece of cloth, in place of the modern chess board. These carpets called Satranji were exported from India in ancient and medieval times. The word: Sataranji has found its way into many modern foreign languages including English. The Oxford dictionary defines it as an 'Indian cotton Carpet'.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:51 AM
THE MAKING OF DRUGS AND HERBAL COMPOUNDS
As India is the home of Ayurveda, the herbal system of medicine, it is but natural that many herbal compounds, drugs, antidotes, etc., should have existed in ancient India. Many foreign commentators like Megasthanes, Strabo, Xenophon and Ktesias have referred to the various drugs and medical compounds that were extracted by ancient Indians.
According to Ktesias, "Writers on India inform us that, that country produces many drugs, and is astonishingly prolific of those plants which yield them. Many of these drugs are medicinal and cure snakebites, which are so dangerous to life, but others are deleterious and quickly destroy life." 'ARRACK: In ancient India the technique of surgery was well developed. Shusruta who lived in the 8th century B.C. is recorded to have performed operations like extracting cataracts, extracting teeth, transplanting flesh (plastic surgery), etc. There also were other practitioners of medicine like Charaka, Atreya, Agnivesa, Jeevaka, etc.
The practice of surgery required that the patient be made unconscious, but in the absence of chloroform or any other drug to administer anesthesia, special liquors were used. The use of liquors as anaesthetic media has been referred to in the ancient treatises on medicine. These liquors were extracted from fruits, sugarcane and even some types of roots. The generic name for these liquors was Arka which in Sanskrit means 'essence'. Such liquors were even consumed in normal times apart from their medicinal usage. In India we had liquors like Soma and Sura since Vedic times.
Liquors were also exported to foreign countries since very early times. The Arabs who carried Indian commodities to western countries in ancient and medieval ages, called the Indian liquor Arak from the Sanskrit term Arka. From the Arabic term we have the English word Arrack, this is corroborated by the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:52 AM
GOOGUL:
This unfamiliar word means an aromatic gum which is the basic input into many Ayurvedic medicines. This word was transmitted to the west through the export of Ayurvedic medicines to the Roman Empire. The word is used even today in Indian medicines as in Yograj Guggul for instance.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:52 AM
CHIRETTA:
This is the name of a plant which yields a bitter serum used as medicine by Ayurveda. The export of this item in ancient times has led to the inclusion of the word Chiretta in the medical vocabularies of western languages today. The word Chiretta is derived from the Sanskrit term, Kirata-tikta which means 'bitter plant' from Kirata'. Kirata, incidentally was the name of a province in ancient India.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:52 AM
BACHNAG:
Bachnag or Bish is another word which has found its way into the medical vocabularies of many western languages through trade with India in ancient times. This serum was extracted from a calf's-navel and was called Vatsa-nabha (i.e. calfs navel) in Sanskrit. It is from the term Vatsa-nabha that the term Bachnag is derived.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:53 AM
BISCOBRA:
The use of snake's venom as an antidote for snakebite was recognised in India since ancient times. The word Biscobra which is one of the terms used for snake's venom in western medical lexicon is derived from the Sanskrit term Vishakapra.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:53 AM
CHAULMOOGRA:
This is the name of a tree whose seeds were used for extracting oil which was used in the treatment of leprosy in ancient India. This remedy was transmitted to foreign countries alongwith the name of the oil. The English word Chaulmoogra originates from the Indian term for it. This is corroborated by the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:54 AM
THE CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING OF SPICES
India is in a way synonymous with spices; Pepper, Ginger, Cloves, Cinnamon, Coriander, Cardamom, Cumin, etc., have all been exported from India since ancient times. In fact, spices were so valuable in the west that at times when the trade routes were dislocated by wars, spices used to sold by their weight in gold. We shall see below the various spices exported from India in ancient times.
PEPPER:
Pepper or Pier Longum has been referred to in the Periplus. According to the notes to the Periplus, pepper was obtained from "a perennial shrub, native of the hotter parts of India". The Latin term Piper Longum and the Greek Peperi originated from the Sanskrit term Pippali.
Pepper was grown in various parts of India in. ancient times, especially long variety of pepper. This is evident from the prefixes Vaidehi (from Videha), Magadhi (from Magadha) Chapala (from Chapa), etc., used with the word Pippali in ancient times. Referring to the Indian trade in pepper, the Periplus has said" They send large ships to these market towns on account of the great quantity and bulk of pepper and malabathrum."
GINGER:
The word ginger is derived from the latin word gingiber which according to the Oxford Dictionary is derived from the Sanskrit root word Sringam which means a horn. The Oxford Dictionary has spelt the Sanskrit word as Crngam. The word horn could have been used to refer to ginger perhaps due to the branched shape of an antler's horn which the ginger root has. This reason has also been cited by the Oxford Dictionary. (Ginger was known in ancient India as Aardrakam. This word was generally used to refer to fresh or wet ginger. Even today in Hindi we use the word Adrak to refer to ginger. The dry variety of ginger was called Sunthi in ancient India, and is called Sunth in many modern Indian languages.
Ginger ale and alcohol were also made from ginger in ancient India. This was called Ardraka-Madya and Panam-Madya. Madya as we know means liquor.
CLOVES:
The first available reference to the Indian trade in cloves is that of Cosmas Indicosleustes who tells us in his text the Christian Topography dated around 550 A.D., that "From the inner regions, that is from Tzinista and from the other market-towns, are brought silk cloth, aloe-wood, cloves and sandalwood."
In the year 1495, the Zamorin (Samudrin Raja) of Calicut wrote to the king of Portugal "In my kingdom there is abundance of cinnamon, cloves, ginger, pepper and precious stones." Marco Polo has also noted in the 13th century that cloves and other fine spices were traded by "the kingdom of Melibar" (Kerala). Though we do not have definite evidence, the English word 'clove' seems etymologically close to the Sanskrit word Lavangam. Thus it is possible that the word 'clove' was derived from the Greek and Latin derivations of the term Lavangam.
CINNAMON:
As to the country of origin of cinnamon, the father of history, Herodotus gives a fabulous story of its recovery from the nests of great birds "in those countries in which Bacchus was nursed, " which in Greek legend meant India. This is an indication that cinnamon was originally brought from India. The Sanskrit term for cinnamon which is Sugandhi-Tvacha means aromatic bark. It can be seen that the words sugandha and cinnamon are etymologically near.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:54 AM
THE PROCESSING OF TIMBER
Timber which is a gift of nature was also worked upon and exported. Most Indian timber came from the Himalayan foothills where the huge vertical coniferous trees were sawed and transported with the help of elephants to the saw-mills and cut into planks and cubes and shipped down rivers to the ports by the sea for being exported. The main types of timber that Greek and Roman historians tell us, were imported from India were, teakwood, blackwood, rosewood, ebony, cedar as also sandalwood.
TEAKWOOD:
This commodity is described as being imported from India in the Periplus. According to the notes to the Periplus Teakwood is obtained from a large deciduous tree from India. Teakwood was being used as building timber from ancient times. Its main use was as beams to hold roofs and as ornamental columns. Teakwood was exported both as log planks and cubes.
In ancient India the sawyers were known as Trakachikaha and Darudaranaha. The latter word being derived from Daru which meant 'Timber'. Timber was also known as Kashtham from which were derived the words Kashtaavidalam which meant saw-dust and Kashtha-Vipaatan-Margaha which meant a saw-pit.
BLACKWOOD :
Blackwood has been noted to be an item exported from India by the Periplus. The Latin term for it is Sasamin which is derived from the Sanskrit term Shisam. This wood is very strong and does not crack or split and had been used in building carriage frames, wheels, ships, ploughs, etc., Even today it continues to be a preferred wood for furniture.
EBONY:
This wood is also dark in colour and was exported from India since ancient times. According to the Periplus, vessels are regularly sent from Barygaza (Bhrigu-Kachha, modern Broach-SB), loaded with copper, sandalwood, teakwood and logs of blackwood and ebony." 30 In ancient India ebony was known variously as Kevidaraha, Chamrikaha and Yugapatrakaha. The. last term may indicate the long durability of ebony, Yuga meaning an eon.
CEDAR:
A variety of Himalayan cedar was also exported from India. This cedar was called Devataru which means 'Gods tree'. From this we have English word Deodar which appears in the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:55 AM
THE MANUFACTURE OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
Other items like glass, ceramics, ivory, betel nuts and betel leaves, areca nuts and even rice were exported from ancient India. We shall discuss below the reference made by foreign historians to some of these products.
GLASS:
Glass has been reported to have been manufactured in India since the 3rd century B.C according to the notes to the Periplus.
Pliny has referred to glass manufactured in India as superior to all others because it is ''made of pounded crystal". In ancient India, mirrors with a foil of lead or tin, were largely used in the early centuries of the Christian era. According to Pliny "the people of India by colouring crystal, have found a method of imitating precious stones, beryls in particular.
In the play named Mrichchhakatika authored by Shudraka in around the 5th century A.D. there is a scene in which a king is shown asking an expert in gems to examine some stones brought in by traders to find out whether they are real gems or imitations made from coloured glass.
IVORY:
The Sanskrit word for elephant is Ibha. From this word the Hebrews in the time of king Solomon who imported marble and ivory from India termed ivory as Shen Habbin which means 'elephants teeth'. The word Habbin being a corruption of the Sanskrit Ibha. In ancient Egypt the word Ibha was corrupted as Abu from which came the Etruscan word Ebur and the Latin Eboreum, from which we have the English word lvory .
In fact the word 'elephant' is also said to have been derived from the word Ibha-danta which in Sanskrit means. 'elephant's teeth'. The word elephant, according to the notes to the Periplus is a conjugation of the Arab term 'el' meaning 'the' and Ibha-danta,' from El-ibha-danta came the Greek word 'elephantos' from which we have the English word elephant.
BETEL: This was also an item of export from India, mainly from Kerala. The word 'Betel' is derived from Malayalam term Vettila or Vern-ila which means betel leaf. The Malayalam term is perhaps a corruption of the Sanskrit term 'Tambulam' for betel.
ARECA:
Like betel this item was also exported mainly from Kerala. The English word 'areca' is derived from the Malayalam 'Addekka', according to the Oxford Dictionary.
RICE:
Rice was being exported from India after being dehusked. The word 'Rice' stems from the latin word orizum and the Greek Oryza. These terms are said to have originated from the Sanskrit term Vrihi. In ancient India, the rice was dehusked before being exported. The husk was called Bhatha Wandaha which literally means 'scum of rice'. threshing was known as Nistushikru, the threshing floor was called Khaladhanyam and the threshing instruments were variously known as Musalaha, Ayogram and Kandani. The word Musal is used in many modern Indian languages for the rod used to dehusk rice.
PUNCH:
This is an alcoholic beverage made traditionally of five ingredients viz. wine, hot water, sugar, lime and spices. The origin of this drink is not widely known. Even the Oxford Dictionary states its origin as unknown. But as per another dictionary of words of Indian origin in the English language the word Punch is derived from the Indian word Pancham which means five in Sanskrit and which was the name of this beverage due to the five ingredients it has. The addition of spices and even sugar and lime betray the oriental origin of this beverage. Spices are a typically Indian commodity. Thus the origin of this popular European drink of today seems to lie in India of either medieval or ancient times. The name Punch also supports this claim as in no European language is any word as similar to Punch used for the number five as is the Sanskrit Pancham.
SHAMPOO:
This is another popular western habit which originated in India. The practice of shampoo in India has been mentioned by the Greek historian, Strabo in the 4th century B.C. The word shampoo has been derived from the Indian term Champna. This has also been corroborated in the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:56 AM
MERCANTILE TERMINOLOGY
The wide-ranging array of commodities that were being manufactured or-processed in India found a regular market in the countries of Europe, West Asia, North Africa and even in South-east Asia and the far east. Hence it was but natural that the mercantile terminology of the languages of the countries which traded with India be enriched with words of Indian origin. We shall see below a few such terms that are today in use in western languages. THE CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING OF SPICES
India is in a way synonymous with spices; Pepper, Ginger, Cloves, Cinnamon, Coriander, Cardamom, Cumin, etc., have all been exported from India since ancient times. In fact, spices were so valuable in the west that at times when the trade routes were dislocated by wars, spices used to sold by their weight in gold. We shall see below the various spices exported from India in ancient times.
PEPPER:
Pepper or Pier Longum has been referred to in the Periplus. According to the notes to the Periplus, pepper was obtained from "a perennial shrub, native of the hotter parts of India". The Latin term Piper Longum and the Greek Peperi originated from the Sanskrit term Pippali.
Pepper was grown in various parts of India in. ancient times, especially long variety of pepper. This is evident from the prefixes Vaidehi (from Videha), Magadhi (from Magadha) Chapala (from Chapa), etc., used with the word Pippali in ancient times. Referring to the Indian trade in pepper, the Periplus has said" They send large ships to these market towns on account of the great quantity and bulk of pepper and malabathrum."
GINGER:
The word ginger is derived from the latin word gingiber which according to the Oxford Dictionary is derived from the Sanskrit root word Sringam which means a horn. The Oxford Dictionary has spelt the Sanskrit word as Crngam. The word horn could have been used to refer to ginger perhaps due to the branched shape of an antler's horn which the ginger root has. This reason has also been cited by the Oxford Dictionary. (Ginger was known in ancient India as Aardrakam. This word was generally used to refer to fresh or wet ginger. Even today in Hindi we use the word Adrak to refer to ginger. The dry variety of ginger was called Sunthi in ancient India, and is called Sunth in many modern Indian languages.
Ginger ale and alcohol were also made from ginger in ancient India. This was called Ardraka-Madya and Panam-Madya. Madya as we know means liquor.
CLOVES:
The first available reference to the Indian trade in cloves is that of Cosmas Indicosleustes who tells us in his text the Christian Topography dated around 550 A.D., that "From the inner regions, that is from Tzinista and from the other market-towns, are brought silk cloth, aloe-wood, cloves and sandalwood."
In the year 1495, the Zamorin (Samudrin Raja) of Calicut wrote to the king of Portugal "In my kingdom there is abundance of cinnamon, cloves, ginger, pepper and precious stones." Marco Polo has also noted in the 13th century that cloves and other fine spices were traded by "the kingdom of Melibar" (Kerala). Though we do not have definite evidence, the English word 'clove' seems etymologically close to the Sanskrit word Lavangam. Thus it is possible that the word 'clove' was derived from the Greek and Latin derivations of the term Lavangam.
CINNAMON:
As to the country of origin of cinnamon, the father of history, Herodotus gives a fabulous story of its recovery from the nests of great birds "in those countries in which Bacchus was nursed, " which in Greek legend meant India. This is an indication that cinnamon was originally brought from India. The Sanskrit term for cinnamon which is Sugandhi-Tvacha means aromatic bark. It can be seen that the words sugandha and cinnamon are etymologically near.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:56 AM
THE PROCESSING OF TIMBER
Timber which is a gift of nature was also worked upon and exported. Most Indian timber came from the Himalayan foothills where the huge vertical coniferous trees were sawed and transported with the help of elephants to the saw-mills and cut into planks and cubes and shipped down rivers to the ports by the sea for being exported. The main types of timber that Greek and Roman historians tell us, were imported from India were, teakwood, blackwood, rosewood, ebony, cedar as also sandalwood.
TEAKWOOD:
This commodity is described as being imported from India in the Periplus. According to the notes to the Periplus Teakwood is obtained from a large deciduous tree from India. Teakwood was being used as building timber from ancient times. Its main use was as beams to hold roofs and as ornamental columns. Teakwood was exported both as log planks and cubes.
In ancient India the sawyers were known as Trakachikaha and Darudaranaha. The latter word being derived from Daru which meant 'Timber'. Timber was also known as Kashtham from which were derived the words Kashtaavidalam which meant saw-dust and Kashtha-Vipaatan-Margaha which meant a saw-pit.
BLACKWOOD :
Blackwood has been noted to be an item exported from India by the Periplus. The Latin term for it is Sasamin which is derived from the Sanskrit term Shisam. This wood is very strong and does not crack or split and had been used in building carriage frames, wheels, ships, ploughs, etc., Even today it continues to be a preferred wood for furniture.
EBONY:
This wood is also dark in colour and was exported from India since ancient times. According to the Periplus, vessels are regularly sent from Barygaza (Bhrigu-Kachha, modern Broach-SB), loaded with copper, sandalwood, teakwood and logs of blackwood and ebony." 30 In ancient India ebony was known variously as Kevidaraha, Chamrikaha and Yugapatrakaha. The. last term may indicate the long durability of ebony, Yuga meaning an eon.
CEDAR:
A variety of Himalayan cedar was also exported from India. This cedar was called Devataru which means 'Gods tree'. From this we have English word Deodar which appears in the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:57 AM
THE MANUFACTURE OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
Other items like glass, ceramics, ivory, betel nuts and betel leaves, areca nuts and even rice were exported from ancient India. We shall discuss below the reference made by foreign historians to some of these products.
GLASS:
Glass has been reported to have been manufactured in India since the 3rd century B.C according to the notes to the Periplus.
Pliny has referred to glass manufactured in India as superior to all others because it is ''made of pounded crystal". In ancient India, mirrors with a foil of lead or tin, were largely used in the early centuries of the Christian era. According to Pliny "the people of India by colouring crystal, have found a method of imitating precious stones, beryls in particular.
In the play named Mrichchhakatika authored by Shudraka in around the 5th century A.D. there is a scene in which a king is shown asking an expert in gems to examine some stones brought in by traders to find out whether they are real gems or imitations made from coloured glass.
IVORY:
The Sanskrit word for elephant is Ibha. From this word the Hebrews in the time of king Solomon who imported marble and ivory from India termed ivory as Shen Habbin which means 'elephants teeth'. The word Habbin being a corruption of the Sanskrit Ibha. In ancient Egypt the word Ibha was corrupted as Abu from which came the Etruscan word Ebur and the Latin Eboreum, from which we have the English word lvory .
In fact the word 'elephant' is also said to have been derived from the word Ibha-danta which in Sanskrit means. 'elephant's teeth'. The word elephant, according to the notes to the Periplus is a conjugation of the Arab term 'el' meaning 'the' and Ibha-danta,' from El-ibha-danta came the Greek word 'elephantos' from which we have the English word elephant.
BETEL: This was also an item of export from India, mainly from Kerala. The word 'Betel' is derived from Malayalam term Vettila or Vern-ila which means betel leaf. The Malayalam term is perhaps a corruption of the Sanskrit term 'Tambulam' for betel.
ARECA:
Like betel this item was also exported mainly from Kerala. The English word 'areca' is derived from the Malayalam 'Addekka', according to the Oxford Dictionary.
RICE:
Rice was being exported from India after being dehusked. The word 'Rice' stems from the latin word orizum and the Greek Oryza. These terms are said to have originated from the Sanskrit term Vrihi. In ancient India, the rice was dehusked before being exported. The husk was called Bhatha Wandaha which literally means 'scum of rice'. threshing was known as Nistushikru, the threshing floor was called Khaladhanyam and the threshing instruments were variously known as Musalaha, Ayogram and Kandani. The word Musal is used in many modern Indian languages for the rod used to dehusk rice.
PUNCH:
This is an alcoholic beverage made traditionally of five ingredients viz. wine, hot water, sugar, lime and spices. The origin of this drink is not widely known. Even the Oxford Dictionary states its origin as unknown. But as per another dictionary of words of Indian origin in the English language the word Punch is derived from the Indian word Pancham which means five in Sanskrit and which was the name of this beverage due to the five ingredients it has. The addition of spices and even sugar and lime betray the oriental origin of this beverage. Spices are a typically Indian commodity. Thus the origin of this popular European drink of today seems to lie in India of either medieval or ancient times. The name Punch also supports this claim as in no European language is any word as similar to Punch used for the number five as is the Sanskrit Pancham.
SHAMPOO:
This is another popular western habit which originated in India. The practice of shampoo in India has been mentioned by the Greek historian, Strabo in the 4th century B.C. The word shampoo has been derived from the Indian term Champna. This has also been corroborated in the Oxford Dictionary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:58 AM
MERCANTILE TERMINOLOGY
The wide-ranging array of commodities that were being manufactured or-processed in India found a regular market in the countries of Europe, West Asia, North Africa and even in South-east Asia and the far east. Hence it was but natural that the mercantile terminology of the languages of the countries which traded with India be enriched with words of Indian origin. We shall see below a few such terms that are today in use in western languages.
CASH: Surprisingly the English word cash is of ancient Indian origin. It is derived from the Sanskrit term Karsha which means currency. In ancient India, metallic currency was termed Karshapana. This term was normally used for referring to copper coins which were more numerous as compared to coins of the precious metals. From the Sanskrit term Karsha was derived the Latin term Capsa and then the modern Italian term Cassa, the Portuguese term Caixa, the French term Casse and the English term Cash. This etymology is corroborated by the Oxford Dictionary.
CHIT:
Even this English word has a hoary Indian origin. In ancient times whenever money was owed by one trader to another a written document was given. This written document bore the signature and if possible the seal of the debtor. In India this seal was called Chinhha or Chitra. Chinhha means symbol and Chitra means picture. It is from these words that the modern English word Chit has been derive. This origin of the word is stated by the Oxford Dictionary.
MOHUR:
This word which generally means a gold coin in modern Indian languages and has found its way into English is derived from the Sanskrit term Mudra which means a seal. This transmission could also have taken place through mercantile connections.
SEER:
The word seer which has also found its way into the English Language originates from the Sanskrit Setaka. Though it is believed by some scholars that this word has entered the English language through Latin it appears that it is a recent addition to the language as a result of British colonial rule in India.
GUNNY:
This word which is part of our daily usage both in English and in modern Indian languages, is derived from a Sanskrit original word Goni or Gonika which according to the Oxford Dictionary, means a sack. These sacks made of jute and hemp were traditionally used for packaging Indian goods. This word may have been transmitted to European languages as a result of mercantile contacts between India and the West.
DINGHY:
This word which connotes a small boat is derived from the Sanskrit root word Drona which means a casket. In modern Hindi a similar word viz. Dingi or Dengi is used for a small boat. According to the Oxford Dictionary the English word 'dinghy' is derived from the Hindi word. But it is quite probable that the word had been transmitted earlier through the commercial links in ancient times.
COWRY:
This is actually a sea-shell of a small gastropod (invertebral water creature) which was used as currency in India and in some other oriental countries in ancient times.
In India these shells which were referred to as Karapada or Karapadika in Sanskrit, were pronounced as Kaudi or Kauri in the spoken Language, Prakrit and later in Hindi. From this word the English word Cowry or Cowrie has been derived. This etymology of the word Cowry has also been stated in Oxford Dictionary.
Thus we can see how the wide-spread commercial contact between India and the west led to the presence of many Indian words in European languages.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:01 AM
SHIPBUILDING AND NAVIGATION in Ancient India
In Ancient India there existed a strange belief that if any Hindu crossed the seas, he would lose his religion. When and why this belief came into being is not known. But taking a close look at out nation's maritime history we find evidence of a very large number of Indians who should have had lost their religion as they had crossed the seas to trade and build empires in distant lands.
Not only did these enterprising Indians, not lose their religion but they made India into one of the foremost maritime nations of those days and spread Indian culture overseas.
In those days India had colonies, in Cambodia (Kambuja in Sanskrit) in Java, (Chavakam or Yava dwipa) in Sumatra, in Borneo, Socotra (Sukhadhara) and even in Japan. Indian traders had established settlements in Southern China, in the Malayan Peninsula, in Arabia, in Egypt, in Persia, etc., Through the Persians and Arabs, India had cultivated trade relations with the Roman Empire.
The depiction of a ship in the Ajanta murals
Sea-faring was respected occupation in ancient times in India
This is even reflected in theological folklore
The Satya-narayana Puja, talks of a sea merchant who was caught in a storm and prayed to the lord that if he is saved he would offer a pujato lord Satya-narayana
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-21 07:03 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:05 AM
A HANDBOOK OF SHIPBUILDING FROM ANCIENT INDIA
Sanskrit and Pali literature has innumerable references to the maritime activity of Indians in ancient times. There is also one treatise in Sanskrit, named Yukti Kalpa Taru which has been compiled by a person called Bhoja Narapati. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru (YKT) had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of Sanskrit Manu scripts. An excellent study of the YKT had been undertaken by Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji entitled 'Indian Shipping'. Published by Orient Longman, Bombay in 1912.)
This treatise gives a technocratic exposition on the technique of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships, their sizes, the materials from which they were built. The Yukti Kalpa Taru sums up in a condensed form all the available information
The Yukti Kalpa Taru gives sufficient information and date to prove that in ancient times, Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials which were used in building ships. Apart from describing the qualities of the different types of wood and their suitablility in shipbuilding, the Yukti Kalpa Taru also gives an elaborate classification of ships based on their size.
The primary division is into 2 classes viz. Samanya (ordinary) and Vishesha (Special). The ordinary type for sea voyages. Ships that undertook sea voyages were classified into, Dirgha type of ships which had a long and narrow hull and the Unnata type of ships which had a higher hull.
The treatise also gives elaborate directions for decorating and furnishing the ships with a view to making them comfortable for passengers. Also mentioned are details about the internal seating and accommodation to be provided on the ships. Three classes of ships are distinguished according to their length and the position of cabins. The ships having cabins extending from one end of the deck to the other are called Sarvamandira vessels. These ships are recommended for the transport of royal treasure and horses. The next are the Madhyamarnandira vessels which have cabins only in the middle part of their deck. these vessels are recommended for pleasure trips. And finally there is a category of Agramandira vessels, these ships were used mainly in warfare.
A panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicting a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru an ancient Indian text on Ship-building
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:07 AM
MACCHA-YANTRA - THE ANCIENT INDIAN MARINER'S COMPASS
Interestingly there were Sanskrit terms for many parts of a ship. The ship's anchor was known as Nava-Bandhan-Kilaha which literally means 'A Nail to tie up a ship' . The sail was called Vata Vastra a which means 'wind-cloth'. The hull was termed StulaBhaga i.e. an'expanded area'. The rudder was called Keni-Pata, Pata means blade; the rudder was also known as Karna which literally means a 'ear' and was so called because it used to be a hollow curved blade, as is found today in exhaust fans. The ship's keel was called Nava-Tala which means 'bottom of a ship'. The mast was known as Kupadanda, in which danda means a pole.
Even a sextant was used for navigation and was called Vruttashanga-Bhaga. But what is more surprising is that even a contrived mariner's compass was used by Indian navigators nearly 1500 to 2000 years ago. This claim is not being made in an overzealous nationalistic spirit. This has in fact been the suggestion of an European expert, Mr. J.L. Reid, who was a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders in England at around the beginning of the present century. This is what Mr. Reid has said in the Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xiii., Part ii., Appendix A.
"The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word Maccha Yantra, or fish machine, which Molesworth gives as a name for the mariner's compass".
It is significant to note that these are the words of a foreign Naval Architect and Shipbuilding Expert. Is is thus quite possible that the Maccha Yantra (fish machine) was transmitted to the west by the Arabs to give us the mariner's compass of today.
A model of how a ship constructed in ancient times could have looked.
Some of the coins in the background depict sea-faring vessels
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:15 AM
ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
"The Indian way of life provides the vision of the natural, real way of life.
We veil ourselves with unnatural masks.
On the face of India are the tender expressions which carry the mark of the Creators hand. "
- George Bernard Shaw, Famous British Author
The Science of Architecture and Civil Construction was known in Ancient India as Sthapatya-Shastra. The word Sthapatya is derived from the root word Sthapana i.e. 'to establish'. The technique of arhitecture was both a science and an art, hence it is also known as Sthapatya-kala, the word Kala means an art.
Panel at Khajuraho created in the 10th century in Madhya Pradesh in Central India
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From very early times the construction of temples, palaces, rest houses and other civil construction was undertaken by professional architects known as Sthapati. Even during the Vedic times, there exIsted professionals who specialised in the technique of constructing chariots and other heavy instruments of war. These professionals have been referred to in the Rig Veda as Rathakara which literally means 'chariot maker'.
The excavations of the ruins at Mohenjodaro and Harrappa (today in Pakistan) proved the existence of a developed Urban civilisation in India. The indus valley civilization is dated around 3000 B.C. Thus since the last 5000 years. India has had an urban civilisation. The existence of an urban civilization presumes the existence of well devel oped techniques of architecture and construction.
These techniques would no doubt have had been systematically stated in record books for transmitting them to the later generations as well for being used as reference media for actual construction. Unfortunately, as far as the Indus Valley civilization goes no such records have been preserved either as rock edicts, manuscripts, etc., or in folk tales and legends.
But the fact that cities on the scale of Mohenjodaro had been constructed bear testimony to the existence of a systematised and highly developed technique of architecture 5000 years ago.
Boddhisattvas (huge Buddha Statues) at Bamiyan in Afghanistan
These statues were carved out of this hillside in the 1st Century under the patronage of the Kushana emperor Kanishka
(These are the statues which the Taliban has vowed to blow up)
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But in the later ages, from about the 7th century B.C., we have both literature references as well as archeological evidences to prove the existence of large urban civilizations in the Ganges Valley. Like in most other sciences, even remotely connected with religion, in architecture also the scientific ideas and techniques have been integrated with philosophy and theology. This was so as the majority of the large constructions were temples. As the construction of Hindu temples rarely used mortar but used a technique where the stones could be affixed to one another with the force of gravity. The technique followed in doing this was similar to the one used in the Roman Aquaducts. The exquisite carvings were engraved after the stones had been fixed in their places. Thus the carving of figurines right upto the top of a temples roof must have been a demanding task.
Another panel from Khajuraho
Note the intricate and fine outline
of the figurines carved.The temples were
completed over a period of 200 years
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Such carvings are especially seen in the Gopurams i.e. roofs over the south Indian temples and on the tall dorrways to the temples. The Raj-Gopurams or main roofs of such temples rise to a height of nearly 90 to 100 ft. and are fully carved with various figurines depicting gods and goddesses from the Hindu pantheon.
Borobudur in Indonesia
is a temple complex devoted to Buddha
This complex was built in the the 7th Century
Borobud means "Big Buddha"
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:23 AM
INDIAN ARCHITECTURAL TRADITION OVERSEAS
Indian techniques of art and architecture spread both westwards and eastwards. During the reign of Ashoka; Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Seistan were parts of the Mauryan empire. Buddhist Stupas were constructed in these Mauryan provinces. Unfortunately, very few of them have survived till today.
However the huge Boddhisattvas (statues of Buddha) that were cut out of rock faces covering entire mountain faces and cliffs, have survived human and natural ravages and can even today be seen at Bamiyan in Afghanistan. During Kushana times, Central Asia was a part of the Kushana empire. Indian art blended with Greek and Kushana styles, and spread into central Asia. It is these Boddhisattvas that the Taliban recntly threatened to blow-up)
The majesty of this grand temple complex at Khajuraho has to be seen to be believed
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Thus India's cultural frontiers at one time extended upto Balkh (referred to as Vahalika in Vedic texts) on the river Oxus (Akshu) and beyond, and played an important role in shaping the art traditions which flourished between the 1st and the 8th centuries in Central Asia.
The Gandhara school of art of Afghanistan and Central Asia was actually derived from Indian art styles. In fact even the portrait art of the Oxus region claimed by some scholars to have been an independent school is actually an extension of Indian art forms.
Besides Central Asia, the whole of Southeast Asia received most its art and architectural traditions from India. Alongwith Buddhism, Indian art and architecture also travelled to countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma as also to China, Korea and Japan. Sri Lanka being on our back door was heavily influenced by Indian art and architecture.
The Mandala was a blueprint
for any Vastu (edifice)
Vastu-Shastra was an amalgam
of architecture and theology
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The Stupas in Sri Lanka which belong to the period between the 3rd Century B.C. to 4th century A.D. follow the Indian pattern of a hemispherical Stupa shaped like an egg and called Anda, as referred to earlier in the chapter.
The inter-locking dome of the Stupa
was to be the prototype for
the domes (over Mosques and churches) that were built
later by Romans and Arabs
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The Dome of the Mosques in Islamic Architecture is derived from the Stupa
The hemispherical construction of the stupas also seems to have influenced Byzantine architecture perhaps through Pre-Islamic, Sassanian Persia. The famous Sophia mosque at Istanbul overlooking the Bosphorous Straits has domes which closely resemble the Buddhist Stupa. In fact th minarets in the mosque were erected late when the Ottoman Turks captured Istanbul (then called Constantinople) from the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century.
The dome over this Mosque at Istanbul
has borrowed the technique
from the Indian Stupa
The mosque, incidentally
was built as a Church but
was later converted into a mosque
by the conquering Ottoman Turks
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One can imagine that without the minarets, the mosque, which was originally a Christian Cathedral must have looked very much like a Stupa. In fact this style of architecture also influenced Islamic architecture. The dome mosques in all Muslim countries perhaps have borrowed the style of having dome from the Anda of the Buddhist Stupa. Indian influences have also felt in Europe Christian Basilicas have similarities with the Buddhist Stupas. Their mosaics seem have borrowed ideas from, the Buddhist chaityas. Indian motifs can also be traced in Gothic sculpture in the carvings in the cathedrals of Bayeux, Achen and Trier. Though this influence has been indirect and slight, its existence cannot be denied. But the more pervading influence of Indian art and architecture through Buddhism was in countries of south-east Asia.
Bernard Groslier the author of the section on 'Indochina' in the 'Art of the World Series' has made the following observations about the influence of Indian Art.
This is a another Panel at
Borobudur in Indonesia
Note that the carving looks exactly Indian.
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"It was one of the most important civilising movements of the ancient times, worthy to compare with the Hellenisation of the mediterranean world. And India can justly be proud to have spread the light of her understanding over such distant lands, which without her might have remained in darkness". The regions to which Bernard Groslier is referring to are the countries of south-east Asia. Many architectural and art forms in these countries display a clear Indian influence.
One instance is the famous 108 metre high statue of Buddha at Dong Duong which closely resembles the Amravati sculptures. The presence of curly hair especially, indicates Indian origin in a country where people have straight hair. In the Bali islands in Indonesia many idols of Ganesha have been found. The people of Bali call themselves Hindus.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:21 PM
Ancient India's Contribution to Mathematics
QUOTE:
"India was the motherland of our race and Sanskrit the mother of Europe's languages.
India was the mother of our philosophy, of much of our mathematics, of the ideals embodied in Christianity... of self-government and democracy.
In many ways, Mother India is the mother of us all."
- Will Durant
- American Historian 1885-1981
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:23 PM
Mathematics represents a high level of abstraction attained by the human mind. In India, mathematics has its roots in Vedic literature which is nearly 4000 years old. Between 1000 B.C. and 1000 A.D. various treatises on mathematics were authored by Indian mathematicians in which were set forth for the first time, the concept of zero, the techniques of algebra and algorithm, square root and cube root.
This method of graduated calculation
was documented in the Pancha-Siddhantika
(Five Principles) in the 5th Century
But the technique is said to be dating
from Vedic times circa 2000 B.C.
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As in the applied sciences like production technology, architecture and shipbilding, Indians in ancient times also made advances in abstract sciences like Mathematics and Astronomy. It has now been generally accepted that the technique of algebra and the concept of zero originated in India.
But it would be surprising for us to know that even the rudiments of Geometry, called Rekha-Ganita in ancient India, were formulated and applied in the drafting of Mandalas for architectural purposes. They were also displayed in the geometric patterns used in many temple motifs.
Even the technique of calculation, called algorithm, which is today widely used in designing soft ware programs (instructions) for computers was also derived from Indian mathematics. In this chapter we shall examine the advances made by Indian mathematicians in ancient times.
Many motifs in Hindu temples and Palaces display a mix of floral and Geometric patterns.
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ALGEBRA- THE OTHER MATHEMATICS ?
In India around the 5th century A.D. a sys tem of mathematics that made astronomical calculations easy was developed. In those times its application was limited to astronomy as its pioneers were Astronomers. As tronomical calculations are complex and involve many variables that go into the derivation of unknown quantities. Algebra is a short-hand method of calculation and by this feature it scores over conventional arithmetic.
In ancient India conventional mathematics termed Ganitam was known before the development of algebra. This is borne out by the name - Bijaganitam, which was given to the algebraic form of computation. Bijaganitam means 'the other mathematics' (Bija means 'another' or 'second' and Ganitam means mathematics). The fact that this name was chosen for this system of computation implies that it was recognised as a parallel system of computation, different from the conventional one which was used since the past and was till then the only one. Some have interpreted the term Bija to mean seed, symbolizing origin or beginning. And the inference that Bijaganitam was the original form of computation is derived. Credence is lent to this view by the existence of mathematics in the Vedic literature which was also shorthand method of computation. But whatever the origin of algebra, it is certain that this technique of computation Originated in India and was current around 1500 years back. Aryabhatta an Indian mathematican who lived in the 5th century A.D. has referred to Bijaganitam in his treatise on Mathematics, Aryabhattiya. An Indian mathematician - astronomer, Bhaskaracharya has also authored a treatise on this subject. the treatise which is dated around the 12th century A.D. is entitled 'Siddhanta-Shiromani' of which one section is entitled Bijaganitam.
Thus the technique of algebraic computation was known and was developed in India in earlier times. From the 13th century onwards, India was subject to invasions from the Arabs and other Islamised communities like the Turks and Afghans. Alongwith these invader: came chroniclers and critics like Al-beruni who studied Indian society and polity.
The Indian system of mathematics could no have escaped their attention. It was also the age of the Islamic Renaissance and the Arabs generally improved upon the arts and sciences that they imbibed from the land they overran during their great Jehad. Th system of mathematics they observed in India was adapted by them and given the name 'Al-Jabr' meaning 'the reunion of broken parts'. 'Al' means 'The' & 'Jabr' mean 'reunion'. This name given by the Arabs indicates that they took it from an external source and amalgamated it with their concepts about mathematics.
Between the 10th to 13th centuries, the Christian kingdoms of Europe made numerous attempts to reconquer the birthplace of Jesus Christ from its Mohammedan-Arab rulers. These attempts called the Crusades failed in their military objective, but the contacts they created between oriental and occidental nations resulted in a massive exchange of ideas. The technique of algebr could have passed on to the west at thi time.
During the Renaissance in Europe, followed by the industrial revolution, the knowledge received from the east was further developed. Algebra as we know it today has lost any characteristics that betray it eastern origin save the fact that the tern 'algebra' is a corruption of the term 'Al jabr' which the Arabs gave to Bijaganitam Incidentally the term Bijaganit is still use in India to refer to this subject.
In the year 1816, an Englishman by the name James Taylor translated Bhaskara's Leelavati into English. A second English translation appeared in the following year (1817) by the English astronomer Henry Thomas Colebruke. Thus the works of this Indian mathematician astronomer were made known to the western world nearly 700 years after he had penned them, although his ideas had already reached the west through the Arabs many centuries earlier.
In the words of the Australian Indologist A.L. Basham (A.L. Basham; The Wonder That was India.) "... the world owes most to India in the realm of mathematics, which was developed in the Gupta period to a stage more advanced than that reached by any other nation of antiquity. The success of Indian mathematics was mainly due to the fact that Indians had a clear conception of the abstract number as distinct from the numerical quantity of objects or spatial extension."
Thus Indians could take their mathematical concepts to an abstract plane and with the aid of a simple numerical notation devise a rudimentary algebra as against the Greeks or the ancient Egyptians who due to their concern with the immediate measurement of physical objects remained confined to Mensuration and Geometry.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:26 PM
GEOMETRY AND ALGORITHM
But even in the area of Geometry, Indian mathematicians had their contribution. There was an area of mathematical applications called Rekha Ganita (Line Computation). The Sulva Sutras, which literally mean 'Rule of the Chord' give geometrical methods of constructing altars and temples. The temples layouts were called Mandalas. Some of important works in this field are by Apastamba, Baudhayana, Hiranyakesin, Manava, Varaha and Vadhula.
The Arab scholar Mohammed Ibn Jubair al Battani studied Indian use of ratios from Retha Ganita and introduced them among the Arab scholars like Al Khwarazmi, Washiya and Abe Mashar who incorporated the newly acquired knowledge of algebra and other branches of Indian mathema into the Arab ideas about the subject.
The chief exponent of this Indo-Arab amalgam in mathematics was Al Khwarazmi who evolved a technique of calculation from Indian sources. This technique which was named by westerners after Al Khwarazmi as "Algorismi" gave us the modern term Algorithm, which is used in computer software.
Algorithm which is a process of calculation based on decimal notation numbers. This method was deduced by Khwarazmi from the Indian techniques geometric computation which he had st ied. Al Khwarazmi's work was translated into Latin under the title "De Numero Indico" which means 'of Indian Numerals' thus betraying its Indian origin. This translation which belong to the 12th century A.D credited to one Adelard who lived in a town called Bath in Britian.
Thus Al Khwarazmi and Adelard could looked upon as pioneers who transmit Indian numerals to the west. Incidents according to the Oxford Dictionary, word algorithm which we use in the English language is a corruption of the name Khwarazmi which literally means '(a person) from Khawarizm', which was the name of the town where Al Khwarazmi lived. To day unfortunately', the original Indian texts that Al Khwarazmi studied arelost to us, only the translations are avail able .
The Arabs borrowed so much from India the field of mathematics that even the subject of mathematics in Arabic came to known as Hindsa which means 'from India and a mathematician or engineer in Arabic is called Muhandis which means 'an expert in Mathematics'. The word Muhandis possibly derived from the Arabic term mathematics viz. Hindsa.
The Buddhist Pagodas borrowed their plan of construction from the geometric grid of the Mandala used for constructing temples in India (A majestic Pagoda at Bangkok)
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:29 PM
The Concept of Zero
The concept of zero also originated inancient India. This concept may seem to be a very ordinary one and a claim to its discovery may be viewed as queer. But if one gives a hard thought to this concept it would be seen that zero is not just a numeral. Apart from being a numeral, it is also a concept, and a fundamental one at that. It is fundamental because, terms to identify visible or perceptible objects do not require much ingenuity.
But a concept and symbol that connotes nullity represents a qualitative advancement of the human capacity of abstraction. In absence of a concept of zero there could have been only positive numerals in computation, the inclusion of zero in mathematics opened up a new dimension of negative numerals and gave a cut off point and a standard in the measurability of qualities whose extremes are as yet unknown to human beings, such as temperature.
In ancient India this numeral was used in computation, it was indicated by a dot and was termed Pujyam. Even today we use this term for zero along with the more current term Shunyam meaning a blank. But queerly the term Pujyam also means holy. Param-Pujya is a prefix used in written communication with elders. In this case it means respected or esteemed. The reason why the term Pujya - meaning blank - came to be sanctified can only be guessed.
Indian philosophy has glorified concepts like the material world being an illusion Maya), the act of renouncing the material world (Tyaga) and the goal of merging into the void of eternity (Nirvana). Herein could lie the reason how the mathematical concept of zero got a philosophical connotation of reverence.
It is possible that like the technique of algebra; the concept of zero also reached the west through the Arabs. In ancient India the terms used to describe zero included Pujyam, Shunyam, Bindu the concept of a void or blank was termed as Shukla and Shubra. The Arabs refer to the zero as Siphra or Sifr from which we have the English terms Cipher or Cypher. In English the term Cipher connotes zero or any Arabic numeral. Thus it is evident that the term Cipher is derived from the Arabic Sifr which in turn is quite close to the Sanskrit term Shubra.
The ancient India astronomer Brahmagupta is credited with having put forth the concept of zero for the first time: Brahmagupta is said to have been born the year 598 A.D. at Bhillamala (today's Bhinmal ) in Gujarat, Western India. ] much is known about Brahmagupta's early life. We are told that his name as a mathematician was well established when K Vyaghramukha of the Chapa dyansty m him the court astronomer. Of his two treatises, Brahma-sputa siddhanta and Karanakhandakhadyaka, first is more famous. It was a corrected version of the old Astronomical text, Brahma siddhanta. It was in his Brahma-sphu siddhanta, for the first time ever had be formulated the rules of the operation zero, foreshadowing the decimal system numeration. With the integration of zero into the numerals it became possible to note higher numerals with limited charecters.
In the earlier Roman and Babylonian systems of numeration, a large number of chara acters were required to denote higher numerals. Thus enumeration and computation became unwieldy. For instance, as E the Roman system of numeration, the number thirty would have to be written as X: while as per the decimal system it would 30, further the number thirty three would be XXXIII as per the Roman system, would be 33 as per the decimal system. Thus it is clear how the introduction of the decimal system made possible the writing of numerals having a high value with limited characters. This also made computation easier.
Apart from developing the decimal system based on the incorporation of zero in enumeration, Brahmagupta also arrived at solutions for indeterminate equations of 1 type ax2+1=y2 and thus can be called the founder of higher branch of mathematics called numerical analysis. Brahmagupta's treatise Brahma-sputa-siddhanta was translated into Arabic under the title Sind Hind).
For several centuries this translation mained a standard text of reference in the Arab world. It was from this translation of an Indian text on Mathematics that the Arab mathematicians perfected the decimal system and gave the world its current system of enumeration which we call the Arab numerals, which are originally Indian numerals.
In a queer way the concept of 'Zero' or Shunya is derived from the concept of a void. The concept of void existed in Hindu Philosophy
hence the derivation of a symbol for it. The concept of Shunyata, influenced South-east asian culture through the Buddhist concept of Nirvana 'attaining salvation by merging into the void of eternity'
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:33 PM
Ancient India's Contribution to ASTRONOMY
QUOTE:
"In India I found a race of mortals living upon the Earth. but not adhering to it. Inhabiting cities, but not being fixed to them, possessing everything but possessed by nothing".
- Apollonius Tyanaeus (Greek Thinker and Traveller 1st Century AD)
Astronomy is one area which has fascinated all mankind from the beginnings of history. In India the first references to astronomy are to be found in the Rig Veda which is dated around 2000 B.C. Vedic Aryans in fact deified the Sun, Stars and Comets. Astronomy was then interwoven with astrology and since ancient times Indians have involved the planets (called Grahas) with the determination of human fortunes. The planets Shani, i.e. Saturn and Mangal i.e. Mars were considered inauspicious.
In the working out of horoscopes (called Janmakundali), the position of the Navagrahas, nine planets plus Rahu and Ketu (mythical demons, evil forces) was considered. The Janmakundali was a complex mixture of science and dogma. But the concept was born out of astronomical observations and perception based on astronomical phenomenon. In ancient times personalities like Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were associated with Indian astronomy.
It would be surprising for us to know today that this science had advanced to such an extent in ancient India that ancient Indian astronomers had recognised that stars are same as the sun, that the sun is center of the universe (solar system) and that the circumference of the earth is 5000 Yojanas. One Yojana being 7.2 kms., the ancient Indian estimates came close to the actual figure.
This temple was dedicated to Surya - the sun god Surya was referred to, in Vedic literature as the creator who himself revolves causing existence.
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-21 06:36 PM ]
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The Calculation of Eclipses And
The Earth's Circumference
In Indian languages, the science of Astronomy is today called Khagola-shastra. The word Khagola perhaps is derived from the famous astronomical observatory at the University of Nalanda which was called Khagola. It was at Khagola that the famous 5th century Indian Astronomer Aryabhatta studied and extended the subject.
Varanasi or Kashi is one site where the Kumbha Mela is held.
The dates for the Kumbha are derived from solar calculations and
are declared 12 years in advance
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-21 06:39 PM ]
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Aryabhatta is said to have been born in 476 A.D. at a town called Ashmaka in today's Indian state of Kerala. When he was still a young boy he had been sent to the University of Nalanda to study astronomy. He made significant contributions to the field of astronomy. He also propounded the Heliocentric theory of gravitation, thus predating Copernicus by almost one thousand years.
Aryabhatta's Magnum Opus, the Aryabhattiya was translated into Latin in the 13th century. Through this translation, European mathematicians got to know methods for calculating the areas of triangles, volumes of spheres as well as square and cube root. Aryabhatta's ideas about eclipses and the sun being the source of moonlight may not have caused much of an impression on European astronomers as by then they had come to know of these facts throught the observations of Copernicus and Galileo.
The Nalanda University once housed 9 million books.
It was the center of education for
scholars from all over Asia.
Many Greek, Persian and Chinese students studied here.
The university was burnt down by pillaging invaders
who overran India in the 11th century
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:42 PM
But considering that Aryabhatta discovered these facts 1500 years ago, and 1000 years before Copernicus and Galileo makes him a pioneer in this area too. Aryabhatta's methods of astronomical calculations expounded in his Aryabhatta-siddhanta were reliable for practical purposes of fixing the Panchanga (Hindu calendar). Thus in ancient India, eclipses were also forecast and their
true nature was perceived at least by the astronomers.
The lack of a telescope hindered further advancement of ancient Indian astronomy. Though it should be admitted that with their unaided observations with crude instruments, the astronomers in ancient India were able to arrive at near perfect measurement of astronomical movements and predict eclipses.
Indian astronomers also propounded the theory that the earth was a sphere. Aryabhatta was the first one to have propounded this theory in the 5th century. Another Indian astronomer, Brahmagupta estimated in the 7th century that the circumference of the earth was 5000 yojanas. A yojana is around 7.2 kms. Calculating on this basis we see that the estimate of 36,000 kms as the earth's circumference comes quite close to the actual circumference known today.
This fascmile is from the
Pancha-siddhantika (Five Principles)
dated around the 5th century.
This text graphically shows
how eclipses are to be calculated.
Thus this text foreshadows
what Westeren Astronomers propounded
nearly one thousand years later
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:44 PM
THE HELIOCENTERIC THEORY OF GRAVITATION
There is an old Sanskrit Sloka (couplet) which is as follows:
"Sarva Dishanaam, Suryaha, Suryaha, Suryaha."
This couplet means that there are suns
in all directions. This couplet which describes the night sky as full of suns, indicates
that in ancient times Indian astronomers had arrived at
the important discovery that the
stars visible at night are similar to the Sun visible during
day time. In other words, it was
recognised that the sun is also a star, though the nearest
one. This understanding is demonstrated
in another sloka which says that when one sun
sinks below the horizon, a thousand suns
take its place.
This apart, many Indian astronomers had
formulated ideas about gravity and gravitation.
Brahmagupta, in the 7th century had
said about gravity that "Bodies fall towards the
earth as it is in the nature of the
earth to attract bodies, just as it is in the nature of water
to flow". About a hundred years before
Brahmagupta, another astronomer, Varahamihira
had claimed for the first time perhaps
that there should be a force which might be
keeping bodies stuck to the earth, and also
keeping heavenly bodies in their determined places. Thus the concept of the
existence of some tractive force that governs
the falling of objects to the earth and their
remaining stationary after having once fallen;
as also determining the positions which
heavenly bodies occupy, was recognised.
It was also recognised that this force is a tractive
force. The Sanskrit term for gravity is
Gurutvakarshan which is an amalgam of Guru-tva-akarshan.
Akarshan means to be
attracted Thus the fact that the character of this
force was of attraction was also
recognised. This apart, it seems that the function
of attracting heavenly bodies was
attributed to the sun.
The term Guru-tva-akarshan can be interpreted to mean,
'to the attracted by the Master".
The sun was recognised by all ancient people to be
the source of light and warmth.
Among the Aryans the sun was deifled. The sun (Surya)
was one of the chief deities in the
Vedas. He was recognised as the source of light (Dinkara),
source of warmth (Bhaskara).
In the Vedas he is also referred to as the source of
all life, the centre of creation and the
centre of the spheres.
The last statement is suggestive of the sun being
recognised as the centre of the universe
(solar system). The idea that the sun was looked
upon as the power that attracts heavenly
bodies is supported by the virile terms like Raghupati
and Aditya used in referring to the
sun. While the male gender is applied to refer to
the sun, the earth (Prithivi, Bhoomi, etc.,)
is generally referred to as a female. The literal
meaning of the term Gurutvakarshan also
supports the recognition of the heliocentric theory,
as the term Guru corresponds with
the male gender, hence it could not have referred to
the earth which was always referred
to as a female.
Many ancient Indian astronomers have also referred to
the concept of heliocentrism.
Aryabhata has suggested it in his treatise
Aryabhattiya. Bhaskaracharya has also made
references to it in his Magnum Opus Siddhanta-Shiromani.
But it has to be conceded that
the heliocentric theory of gravitation was also developed
in ancient times (i.e. around
500 B.C.) by Greek astronomers.
What supports the contention that it could have existed
in India before the Greek
astronomers developed it, is that in Vedic literature
the Sun is referred to as the 'centre
of spheres' alongwith the term Guru-tva-akarshan which
seemingly refers to the sun. The
Vedas are dated around 3000 B.C. to 1000 B.C. Thus the
heliocentric idea could have
existed in a rudimentary form in the days of the
Rig Veda and was refined further by
astronomers of a later age.
lndian Astronomers like Aryabhatta and Varahamihira who
lived between 476 and 587
A.D. made close approaches to the concept of Helicentrism.
In the Surya-Siddhanta, an astronomical text dated
around 400 A.D., the following
appellations have been given to the sun. "He is
denominated the golden wombed
(Hiranyagarbha), the blessed; as being the generator".
He is also referred to as "The
supreme source of light (Jyoti) upon the border of
darkness - he revolves. bringing beings
into being, the creator of creatures". The Surya-Siddhanta
also says that "Bestowing
upon him the scriptures (Vedas) as gifts and establishing
him within the egg as
grandfather of all worlds, he himself then revolves
causing existence". (Quoted from the
Surya-Siddhanta, Translated by Rev. Ebenezer Burgess)
Thus we can see that what ancient Indian astronomers
say comes close to the
heliocentric theory of gravitation, which was a thousand
years later articulated by
Copernicus and Galileo inviting severe reactions from
the clergy in Rome.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:47 PM
Ancient India's Contribution to PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
QUOTE:
Ancient Indian theories lacked an empirical base,
but they were brilliant imaginative explanations
of the physical structure of the world, and in a large measure,
agreed with the discoveries of modern physics.
- A.L. Basham, (Australian Indologist)
It would be surprising for many Indians today to know that the concepts of atom (Ann, Parmanu) and relativity (Sapekshavada) were explicitly stated by an Indian philosopher nearly 600 years before the brith of Christ. These ideas which were of fundamental import had been developed in India in a very abstract manner. This was so as their exponents were not physicians in today's sense of the term. They were philosophers and their ideas about the physical reality were integrated with those of philosophy and theology.
Coinage dating from the 8th Century B.C.
to the17th Century A.D.
Numismatic evidence of the advances
made by Smelting technology in ancient India
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The Five Basic Physical Elements
From the Vedic times, around 3000 B.C. to 1000 B.C., Indians (Indo-Aryans) had classified the material world into four elements viz. Earth (Prithvi), fire (Agni), air (Maya) and water (Apa). To these four elements was added a fifth one viz. ether or Akasha. Ac cording to some scholars these five elements or Pancha Mahabhootas were identified with the various human senses of perception; earth with smell, air with feeling, fire with vision, water with taste and ether with sound. Whatever the validity behind this interpretation, it is true that since very ancient times Indians had perceived the material world as comprising these 5 elements. The Buddhist philosophers who came later, rejected ether as an element and replaced it with life, joy and sorrow.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:49 PM
INDIAN IDEAS ABOUT ATOMIC PHYSICS
Since ancient times Indian philosophers believed that except Akash (ether), all other elements were physically palpable and hence comprised miniscule particles of matter. The last miniscule particle of matter which could not be subdivided further was termed Parmanu. The word Parmanu is a combination of Param, meaning beyond, and any meaning atom. Thus the term Parmanu is suggestive of the possibility that, at least at an abstract level Indian philosophers in ancient times had conceived the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic energy. This Indian concept of the atom was developed independently and prior to the development of the idea in the Greco-Roman world. The first Indian philosopher who formulated ideas about the atom in a systematic manner was Kanada who lived in the 6th century B.C. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana who also lived in the 6th century B.C. and was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world.
These philosophers considered the Atom to be indestructible and hence eternal. The Buddhists believed atoms to be minute objects invisible to the naked eye and which come into being and vanish in an instant. The Vaisheshika school of philosophers believed that an atom was a mere point in space. Indian theories about the atom are greatly abstract and enmeshed in philosophy as they were based on logic and not on personal experience or experimentation. Thus the Indian theories lacked an empirical base, but in the words of A.L. Basham, the veteran Australian Indologist "they were brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, and in a large measure, agreed with the discoveries of modern physics."
The Story of Kanada
The school of philosophy which contributed to the development of ideas about the atom was the Vaisheshika school. A brilliant philosopher by the name Kashyapa (later called Kanada) is credited with having propounded the concept of atom for the first time. According to legend, Kashyapa lived in the 6th century B.C. He was the son of a phi losopher named Ulka. From his child days Kashyapa displayed a keen sense c servation. Minute things attracted his attention. The story goes that once when young boy he had accompanied his fath a pilgrimage to Prayaga, he noticed that thousands of pilgrims who were flocking the town littered its roads with flowers grains of rice which they offered at the tmples by the river Ganges. While everybody else was busy offering prayers, or bathing the Ganges, the young Kashyapa started collecting the grains (Kana) of rice that littered the streets.
Looking at this strange behaviour coming from a boy who seemingly belonged to do family, many of the passers-by curious and started wondering who he could be and why was he acting in strange manner. Soon a crowd collected around the young Kashyapa who continued collecting the grains, oblivious of the attention he was attracting. Passing by that was Muni Somasharma a learned Sage, wondered why the crowd had gathered time when everybody should have been the bathing ghats for the morning's ritual bath. On going near he saw for himself reason and heard the derogatory remarks being made about the young Kashyapa. Muni Somasharma knew who Kashyapa was, he silenced the crowd and said that, knew who the boy was.
Being himself curious to know the reason for Kashyapa's strange behaviour, Somasharma asked him why he was counting discarded grains which even a beggar would not care to collect. Somewhat hurt at question, Kashyapa replied that howsoever miniscule an object might be, it nevertheless was a part of the universe. Individual grains in themselves may seem worthless, but a collection of some hundred grains make up a person's meal, the collection many meals would feed an entire family and ultimately the entire mankind was made of many families, thus even a single grain of rice was as important as all the valuable riches in this world.
This reply of the young Kashyapa deeply impressed Muni Somasharma who said that one day Kashyapa would grow into a celebrated philosopher and said that in recognition of Kayshapa's unusual sense of perceiving miniscule objects he would henceforth be Kanada, from Kana which means a grain.
This was how Kashyapa came to acquire the Kanada, which was made immortal in history of Indian science due to the path-breaking conception of atom and relativity which Kanada was to put forth. He propounded the Vaisheshika-Sutra (Peculiarity Aphorisms). These Sutras were a of science and philosophy. Their subject was the atomic theory of matter. On reading these Sutras we find that Kanada's atomic theory was far more advanced than formulated later by the Greek philosophers, Democritus and Leucippus.
Anu and Parmanu
It was Kanada who first propounded the that the Parmanu (atom) was an indestrutible particle of matter. According to the material universe is made up of Kana. When matter is divided and sudivided, we reach a stage beyond which no division is possible, the undivisible element of matter is Parmanu. Kanada explained that this indivisible, indestructible y cannot be sensed through any human organ.
In saying that there are different types of Parmanu for the five Pancha Mahabhootas, Earth, water, fire, air and ether. Each Parmanu has a peculiar property which depends, on the substance to which it belongs . It was because of this conception of peculiarity of Parmanu (atoms) that this theory unded by Kanada came to be known Vaisheshika-Sutra (Peculiarity Aphorisms). In this context Kanada seems to arrived at conclusions which were surpassed only many centuries after him.
According to Kanada, an object appears to be heavy under water than it does in air because the density of atoms in water is more than in air. The additional density of , in water, Kanada said, takes on part of the weight of an object, hence we feel only a part of its total weight, while in air, the lesser density of atoms results in a lesser part of an object's weight being picked by air, hence we feel the object to be heavier in air than what is was when under the water. In saying this, in a very elementary but important way, Kanada foreshadowed Archimedes' theory that a body immersed in a fluid is subject to an upward force equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid it displaces. Kanada's idea also had shades of relativity in it which was propounded by Einstien in our times.
About his ideas on atom, Kanada observed that an inherent urge made one Parmanu combine with another. When two Parmanu belonging to one class of substance combined, a dwinuka (binary molecule) was the result. This dwinuka had properties similar to the two parent Parmanu. In the material universe, according to him, Parmanu be longing to different classes of substances combine in different combinations giving us a variety of dwinuka, which in other words means different types of substances. Apart from such combination of different Parmanu, Kanada also put forth the idea of chemical changes occuring because of various factors. He claimed that variation in temperature could bring about such changes.
He cited the examples of blackening of a new earthen pot and the ripening of fruit to illustrate the chemical change in substances brought about by the heat. Thus according to Kanada all substances, all matter that existed in the universe was formed of Parmanu (atoms). The variations in the matter reflected the peculiarity of the Parmanu which constituted that particular matter, the variety of combinations between different types of Parmanu and the effect on them of variation in temperature.
These Indian ideas about atom and atomic physics could have been transmitted to the west during the contacts created between India and the west by the invasion of Alexander. The Greeks invaded north-western India in around 330 B C. Alongwith Alexander, came Greek philosophers like Aristotle who is reported to have been Alexander's mentor. Scholars like Aristotle would surely have keenly studied the sciences of the lands which the Greek armies overran. Even after Alexander's departure, massive trade and diplomatic relations existed between Indians and Greeks (who had settled in Asia) This way perhaps, Indian ideas could have travelled westwards where they were developed further.
Some scholars even go to the extent of saying that in Kanada's lifetime itself some Greek scholars had visited India and through a debate with the great philosopher had been exposed to Indian ideas about atom. the possibility of such a meeting is remote as Kanada lived in the 6th century B.C. and the Greeks came into India only in the 4th century B.C. But nevertheless it remains a fact that Indian ideas about atom are the oldest. It is only after the 4th century B.C., after the Greeks had come in contact with India do we find references to the idea of an atom in Greek science. Thus it is quite possible that the Greeks borrowed the ideas about atom from Indian philosophers in the 4th century B.C. But the credit of developing these ideas further, goes to the Greeks and other western philosophers.
This image of Nataraja
the God of Dance is made of
five metals (Pancha-Dhatu)
This technology of mixing
two or more metals and deriving superior alloys
has been observed and noted by
the Greek Historian Philostratus.
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 06:51 PM
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Parallel to the development of the concepts of atom and atomic permutations and combinations in physics there also was a similar development of ideas in the area of Chemistry. However given the nature of chemistry, the ideas did not remain confined to an abstract level. Indian ideas about chemistry grew by experimentation. The areas of application of the principle of chemistry were: the smelting of metals, the distillation of perfumes and fragrant ointments, the making of dyes and pigments, the extraction of sugar, etc.
Incidentally, the empirical nature of chemistry is also reflected in the word we use for substances i.e. Padartha which is a combination of two words Pada meaning 'step' and Artha which itself means 'meaning'. Thus the word Padartha can be literally * translated to mean 'meaning in steps'. Perhaps, this reflects the fact that in chemistry, knowledge was acquired step by step through experimentation and the actual process of day-to-day activities.
In ancient India, chemistry was caled Rasayan Shastra, Rasa-Vidya, Rasatantra and Rasakriya all of which roughly mean 'Science of liquids'. There also existed chemical laboratories and chemicals works, which were called Rasakriya-nagaram and Rasakriya-shala which literally mean 'School where liquids are activated'. A chemist was referred to as a Rasadnya and Rasa-tantra-vid which mean 'Person having knowledge about liquids. Apart from the term Rasa which means liquid, another word, Dravya which means slurry, was also used to refer to chemicals. Thus, in ancient India, chemistry was evidently developed to a significant level.
Metallurgy was an important activity the world over. In fact the discovery of smelting of metals made possible the progress of society from the Stone Age to the Bronze and Iron Ages. In the area of smelting metals, Indians had acquired proficiency in the extraction of metals from ore, and also in the casting of metals. In very early times: around 2000 B.C. the idea of smelting metals was known in Mesopotemia and the Near East. It is possible that Indians could have borrowed the idea from an outside source. It is generally agreed that the Aryan tribes who are said to have destroyed the Indus Valley civilization had bronze weapons which helped them to overcome the otherwise more advanced people of the Indus cities.
Though Indians could have had borrowed the idea of smelting metals from an outside source, they seem to have had used metals in warfare from around 1500 B.G when the Aryans are said to have invaded the Indus Valley cities. The next definite reference to the use of metals by Indian soldiers is by the Greeks. The Greek historian Herodotus has observed in the 5th century that "Indians in the Persian army used arrows tipped with iron". Indian steel and iron were reportedly being used by the Romans for manufacturing armour as well as cutlery. But these references apart, it is in India itself that we find actual objects that reflect the advancement of the technique of smelting.
This exquisite mirrorwork
is inlaid on a base of gold and brass.
This dates back to the 12th century.
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The Iron Pillar at Delhi
The Iron Pillar at Delhi is one such instance. This Pillar, located near the Kutab Minar, is estimated to have been cast in the Gupta period i.e. about 1500 years ago. The Pillar is 7.32 metres in length, tapering from a diameter of 40 cms at the base to 30 cms, at the top and it weights about 6 tonnes. It has been standing in open for more than a millenium in the heat, dust and rain, but except for the natural erosion it has not caught rust. This kind of a rust-proof iron had not been smelted anywhere else in the world, till we invented the stainless steel a few decades ago.
Another instance of Indian metallurgy is the copper statue of Gautama Buddha found at Sultan Ganj in Bihar. The statue is 2.13 metres high and weighs nearly a tonne. There are many such examples that bear testimony to the excellence in smelting metals achieved in India in ancient times.
The ironsmiths who had cast the iron pillar and the statue of Buddha must not only have been experts at their job but they must have inherited the technique that had been perfected over many generations. The Iron Pillar itself testifies to the fact that Indian metallurgy and chemistry had reached a high stage of perfection more than 1500 years ago. Nagarjuna was one such practitioner of the technique of combining various metals in order to invent a superior metal.
Nagarjuna was born at Fort Daihak near the famous shrine of Somnath in Gujarat in 931 A.D. He was a chemist, or an alchemist, as his efforts had been concentrated on transforming the base metals into gold. We are told that he had acquired such a reputation, due to his activities, that the people believed that Nagarjuna was in communion with gods and goddesses who had blessed him with the power of changing base metals into gold and the extracting of 'elixir of life'.
Nagarjuna apparently revelled in the idea of his being looked upon as blessed by the gods. He himself added to this 1belief by writing his treatise, Rasaratnakara in the form of a dialogue between him and the gods. The treatise dealt with the preparation of rasa (liquids, mainly mercury). Nagarjuna has discussed various combinations of liquids in this volume. His treatise, the Rasaratnakara also gave a survey of the status of metallurgy and alchemy as it existed in India in those days.
Methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper from their ores and their purification were also mentioned, in Rasaratnakara. In his attempt to prepare the 'elixir of life' from mercury, Nagarjuna made use of animal and vegetable products, apart from minerals and alkalis. For the dissolution of diamonds, metals and pearls, he suggested the use of vegetable acids like sour gruel and juices of fruits and bark.
In his treatise, he has also listed the apparatus that was used by earlier alchemists. The process of distillation, liquefaction, sublimation and roasting were also mentioned. Nagarjuna also discussed, in detail, the possibility of transmutation of base metals into gold. But although he could not produce gold, these techniques did yield metals with gold like yellowish brillance. Till today these methods are being used to manufacture imitation jewellery.
Nagarjuna has also discussed methods for the preparation of mercury like calamine. Later Nagarjuna seems to have turned towards organic chemistry and medicine. He has written a text called Uttaratantra which is supposed to be a supplement to an earlier text the Shusrutasamahita which is said to have been written by Shusruta in the 8th century B.C.
Nagarjuna's Uttaratantra deals mainly with the preparation of medicinal drugs. He also wrote four Ayurvedic treatises named Arogyamanjari Kakshaputatantra, Yogasara and Yogasatak.
Thus Nagarjuna seems to have been a copious writer. As he lived in the 10th century his works incorporate the ideas of earlier chemists and physicians. Only a few decades after Nagarjuna, India was invaded by the Mohammedans: Mahmud of Ghazni had raided and plundered Nagarjuna's hometown of Somnath in 1020 A.D. It is possible that Nagarjuna's texts fell into the hands of the invaders.
While the invaders ruthlessly destroyed the architectural achievements of this country and imposed their despotic rule, they also transmitted Indian sciences to the outside world.
Alongwith Mahmud of Ghazni came scholars like Al Beruni who studied Indian texts and translated them into Arabic. Many Indian ideas of medicine were incorporated into the Unani system of medicine of the Arabs. Nagarjuna's works could not have escaped their attention. It is possible that the technique of alchemy was borrowed by the Arabs from India. In the ancient world there is no reference to alchemy. We first hear of it in the medieaval Europe. The homeland of the Arabs is not rich in metals, thus alchemy and the smelting of metals could not have been indigenous to the Arabs.
Thus the Arabs seem to have borrowed the technique of transforming base metals info gold-like metals from India. The Arabs called the technique Al Kimia which accord ing to the Oxford Dictionary literally means the 'transformation of metals'. Al means 'The' and Khimia which is derived from the Greek term Khemia means 'to transumute metals'.
But westerners did not appear to have had the knowledge of the technique of alchemy. This is borne out by the fact that the term Alchemy which the westerners use for describing this technique was borrowed from the Arabs. The word A1chemy is obviously a corruption of the term Al Kimia which the Arabs gave to the technique of converting base metals into goldlike substances which they culled out from Indian texts on the subject.
The Makara (Spire) over Hindu temples
were always adorned with brass or gold
toppings (Kamandals). The earliest
reference to the advances
made in Smelting technology
in India are by Greek historians viz,
Philostratus and Ktesias in the 4th century B.C.
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Ancient India's Contribution to MEDICAL SCIENCE
QUOTE:
"In the great teaching of the Vedas,
there is no touch of sectarianism.
It is of all ages, climes and nationalities
and is the royal road for the attainment of the Great Knowledge. "
- Thoreau, (American Thinker)
Medical Science was one area were surprising advances had been made in ancient times in India. Specifically these advances were in the areas of plastic surgery, extraction of catracts, dental surgery, etc., These are not just tall claims. There is documentary evidence to prove the existence of these practices.
An artist's impression
of an operation being performed
in ancient India. In spite of
the absence of anathesia,
complex operations were performed
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SHASTRAKARMA-THE ART OF SURGERY
The practice of surgery has been recorded in India around 800 B.C. This need not come as a surprise because surgery (Shastrakarma) is one of the eight branches of Ayurveda the ancient Indian system of medicine. The oldest treatise dealing with surgery is the Shushruta-Samahita (Shushruta's compendium). Shusruta who lived in Kasi was one of the many Indian medical practitioners who included Atraya and Charaka.
Shushruta was one of the first to study the human anatomy. In the ShusrutaSamahita he has described in detail the study of anatomy with the aid of a dead body. Shusruta's forte was rhinoplasty (Plastic surgery) and ophthalmialogy (ejection of cataracts). Shushruta has described surgery under eight heads Chedya (excision), Lekhya (scarification), Vedhya (puncturing), Esya (exploration), Ahrya (extraction), Vsraya (evacuation) and Sivya (Suturing).
An artist's impression
of the great medicine man Shushruta
(the term and concept 'Doctor' did not exist then)
Shushruta lived in the 8th centory B.C. and
has authored the Shushruta Samahita
Shushruta's Compendium on Medicine
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OPHTHALMIC SURGERY: Shushruta specialised in ophthalmic surgery (extraction of Cataracts). A typically operation per formed by Shushruta for removing cataracts is desired below. "It was a bright morning. The surgeon sat on a bench which was as high as his knees. The patient sat opposite on the ground so that the doctor was at a comfortable height for doing the operation on the patient's eye. After having taken bath and food, that patient had been tied so that he could not move during the operation."
"The doctor warmed the patient's eye with the breath ~ of his mouth. He rubbed the closed eye of the patient with his thumb and then asked the patient to look at his knees. The patient's head was held firmly. The doctor held the lancet between his fore-finger, middle-finger and thumb and introduced it into the patient's eye towards the pupil, half a finger's breadth from the black of the eye and a quarter of a finger's breadth from the outer corner of the eye. He moved the lancet gracefully back and forth and upward. There was a small sound and a drop of water came out.
"The doctor spoke a few words to comfort the patient and moistened the eye with milk. He scratched the pupil with the tip or the lancet, without hurting, and then drove the 'slime' towards the nose. The patient got rid of the 'slime' by drawing it into his nose. It was a matter of joy for the patient that the could see objects through his operated eye and the doctor drew the lancet out slowly. He then laid cotton soaked in fat on the wound and the patient lay still with the operated eye bandaged. It was the patient's left eye and the doctor used his right hand for the operation."
Does this not sound like the detailed procedure and steps of a cataract operation by an ophthalmic surgeon? But this operation was performed around the 8th Century B.C. by Shusruta.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:02 PM
ANATOMY: Shushruta was not only one of the earliest pioneers in surgery in the world but also one of the earliest ones to study the human anatomy. In his Samahita, he described in detail the study of anatomy with the use of a dead body.
He has described the following in his Samahita, "For these purposes, a perfectly preserved body must be used. It should be the body of a person who is not very old and did not die of poison or severe disease. After the intestine have been cleaned, the body must be wrapped in bast (the inner bark of trees), grass or hemp and placed in cage (for pro tection against animals). The cage should be placed in a carefully concealed spot in a river with fairly gentle current, and the body left to soften.
"After seven days the body is to be removed from the water and with a brush of grassroots, hair and bamboo it should be brushed off a layer at a time when this is done the eye can observe every large or small outer or inner part of the body, begining with the skin as each part is laid bare by the brushing."
An artist's impression of the
surgical tools used in ancient
India.
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PLASTIC SURGERY: Perhaps the greatest contribution of Shushruta was the operation of rhinoplasty (restoration of a mutilated nose by plastic surgery). The detailed description of the rhinoplasty operation in the Shushruta Samahita is amazingly meticulous and comprehensive. There is evidence to show that his success in this kind of surgery was very high, which attracted people from all over the country and perhaps even from outside. Cutting off of the nose and ears was one of the common modes of punishment in the early Indian kingdoms.
Shushruta moved by his intense humane approach to life and equipped with superb surgical skills, did the operation of rhinoplasty with remarkable skill, grace and success. The details of the steps of this operation, as recorded in the Shushruta Samahita, are amazingly similar to the steps that are followed even to-day in such advanced plastic surgery.
Indian medical tradition also goes back to Vedic times when the Ashwinikumars, who were practitioners of medicine were given a divine status,. We also have a God of Medicine called Dhanvantari. In historic times the earliest recorded treatise on medicine in India viz., the Shushruta Samahita is dated around the 8th century B.C. Plastic surgery dentistry operation of cataracts, were pioneering advances, in the field of medicine.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:04 PM
AYURVEDA-THE SCIENCE OF LONGEVITY
This is the indigenous system of medicine in India. Ayurveda literally means 'the science of living' (longevity). Ayu means life and Veda means knowledge. The origins of this system of medicine are lost in the hoary past, and the body of knowledge that comes under the heading Ayurveda constitutes ideas about diseases, diagnosis and cure, which have been accumulated over the ages past.
The feature that distinguishes this system of medicines from other systems like Allopathy and Homeopathy is that it is solely based on herbs and herbal compounds. This it shares in common with the ideas on this area in tribal societies. But what makes Ayurveda, a scientific art of healing is its disassociation from the magical aspect which tribal forms of healing normally have. Hence the practitioner of Ayurveda could never degenerate to the level of a shaman or witch-doctor. Hocus pocus and voodoo which are still widely prevalent in rural India could not become a part of Ayurveda as it always retained a physical link between the disease and its cure.
According to Charaka, a noted practioner of Ayurveda in ancient India: "A physician who fails to enter the body of a patient with the lamp of knowledge and understanding can never treat diseases. He should first study all the factors, including environment, which influence a patient's disease, and then prescribe treatment. It is more important to prevent the occurrence of disease than to seek a cure".
These remarks may appear rudimentary today, but they were made by Charaka, some 20 centuries ago in his famous Ayurvedic treatise Charaka Samahita. The treatise contains many more such remarks which are held in reverence even today. Some of them are in the fields of physiology, etiology and embryology. Charaka was the first physician to present the concept of digestion. metabolism and immunity.
According to him a body functions because it contains three dosha or humours, namely, bile, phlegm and wind. These dosha are produced when dhatus, namely blood, flesh and marrow, act upon the food eaten. For the same quantity of food eaten, one body, however, produces dosha in an amount different from another body. That is why one body is different from another. For instance, it is more weighty, stronger, more energetic, Further, illness is caused when the balance among the three dosha in a human body is disturbed. To restore the balance Charaka prescribed medicinal drugs.
Charaka also knew the fundamentals of genetics. For instance, he knew the factors determining the sex of a child. A genetic defect in a child, like lameness or blindness, he said, was not due to any defect in the mother or the father, but in the ovum or sperm of the parents which is today an accepted fact.
Under the guidance of the ancient physician Atreya, another physician named Agnivesa had written an encyclopedic treatise in the eighth- century B.C. However, it was only when Charaka revised this treatise that it gained popularity and came to be known as Charaka-samahita. For two millenniums it remained a standard work on the subject and was translated into many foreign languages, including Arabic and Latin.
The medical system of Ayurveda draws heavily from the doctrines developed in the Charaka-Samahita. The main quality which Ayurveda has borrowed from Charaka is its aim of removing the cause for illness and not just curing the disease itself. In Ayurveda there are no such things as instant relievers, pain killers or antibiotics. The herbs used in Ayurvedic remedies do not operate against the body's metabolism, their effect is registered gradually and hence there are minimum side-effects. The constituents of Ayurvedic medicines are largely based on organic matter. The absence of fast registering inorganic compounds which are at times corrosive, contributes to the absence of side-effects from Ayurvedic medicines.
This art of healing had been held in high esteem in ancient India. It was elevated to a divine status and Dhanvantari the practitioner of this art was deified as the God of Medicine. Even ordinary practitioners of this art - the Ashwinikumars - were given a special status in mythology and folklore. Although very few ancient texts are available today, this method of healing was systematised in early times. The fact that the term Veda was attached to this body of thought testifies to this.
Knowledge of this art was spread among sages, hermits and medicos who roamed from place to place. Those who practiced solely this art were called Vaidyas and they generally belonged to the Brahmin caste. Knowledge of this art was passed from generation to generation. But it remains surprising how this vocation did not obtain the status of a separate caste.
The absence of a caste, wherein this body of ideas could get crystallised and changeless which incidentally could ensure their preservation, along with the absence of a system for regular education and training for practitioners of the art has resulted in its gradual though partial withering over a period of time. The above two lacunae also resulted in the emergence of quackery and made it difficult to distinguish bonafide practitioners from quacks in absence of professional standards. These lacunae have been identified in modern times and recently, organised efforts have been launched to revive and nourish this flagging discipline.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:05 PM
YOGA - HEALTH OF THE BODY AND MIND
Yoga is a system of exercises for physical and mental nourishment. The tradition of Yoga is a hoary one and has been kept alive by ascetics and hermits. The therapeutic qualities of yoga had special relevance for hermits who roamed from place to place, meditating. We normally see an ascetic (Sadhu) meditating in a Yogic pose. Indian classical dance styles also display many Yogic postures. Apart from being a system of exercise, an important aspect of Yoga is that of self-discipline.
The term Yoga is itself derived from the Sanskrit word "yoktra" meaning a yoke. The etymological closeness of the Sanskrit and English words is striking. They have exactly the same meaning. The self-discipline aspect of Yoga is evident in the qualities of holding the breath (in Pranayama), absolute stiIless (in Shavasana), celibacy (Bramhacharya). There are innumerable asanas (poses) in Yoga.
Most of them derive their names from the semblance of the body in those poses to different animals and objects. For instance, there is a Matsyasana (fish pose), Mayurasana (peacock pose), Simhasana (lion pose), Halasana (plough pose), etc. But Yoga is a multifarious system, there are various forms of discipline touching different aspects of human life, which are brought under the heading Yoga. We have Hathayoga (bodily exercise), Gyanyoga or Dnyanyoga (exercise for the mind and intellect), Karmayoga (discipline in our actions in daily life).
It was as early as the 2nd century B.C. i.e. 2100 years ago that the fundamentals of Yoga were systematically presented. The person who is credited with having done this is Patanjali and his treatise is known as Yogasutra i.e. Yoga Aphorisms. According to Patanjali, within the human body there are channels called Nadi and centres called Chakra. If these are tapped, The energy hidden in the body can be released. This energy is called Kundalini. The release of Kundalini enables the body to acquire many powers which are normally beyond its capability.
Patanjali gives eight stages of Yoga viz., Yama (universal moral commandments), Niyama (self-purification through discipline), Asana (posture), Pranayama (breath-control), Pratyahara (withdrawal of mind from external objects), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation) and Samadhi (state of super-consciousness) .
But though the Yogasutras were formulated two thousand years ago, Yoga has been practiced for countless generations, it is only in the last few years that scientists have begun to recognise the powers of yoga. It has now been established through experiments that by practising Yoga, several ailments can be cured. Tests conducted on Yogis show that they do acquire extraordinary physical powers. For instance, they can live without oxygen for a long time, they can also adjust their metabolism if they have to remain without food for long periods.
Traditionally, Yoga in the strict sense has been practiced by Sadhus and Sanyasis (sages and hermits) who had renounced material pleasures and roamed the country, meditating and spreading the gospel of truth as they perceived it.
In ancient times the teaching of Yoga was also an integral part of the traditional manner of education as imparted in Ashramas and Gurukulas which were presided over by hermits. Though education in these Ashramas was open only to a few, the practice of Yoga in its lesser strict versions has been popular among the common people all through the ages. In the present age though not much is being done officially to promote the practice of Yoga in India and abroad, the spiritual movements originating in India which find many adherents in the West are a medium for the spread of Yoga.
Although the Ashramas are vanishing, the tradition of Yoga is kept alive today by Gymnasiums. Students of Indian classical dances have to undergo some of Yogic training. But the field where the application of Yoga is being increasingly recognised is physiotherapy.
An artist's impression
of a Yogi outside a
hermitage. The Yogi below is
depicted doing the Paschim-ottana-asana
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Ancient India's Contribution to THE FINE ARTS
QUOTE:
"If I am asked which nation had been advanced
in the ancient world in respect of education and
culture then I would say it was - India."
- Max Muller (German Indologist)
In the area of the fine arts too the Indian psyche has proved itself to be quite fertile. An Indian is generally familiar with the different classical dance styles that today exist in India, like Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Mohini Attam apart from the folk dance like Bhangra and Garba.
In the area of music too we have many indigenously Indian muscial instruments like Sarangi, Sitar, Tabla, Tambora, Tanpura, etc., Two schools of vocal music also have evolved in India viz. the Hindustani School and Carnatic School. Exponents of Indian vocal music and dance like Bhimsen Joshi Subbalakshmi, Yamini Krishnamurthy, Sanjukta Panigrahi, etc. have become popular with foreign audiences. The series of 'Festivals of India' that were organised in Britain, U.S.A., France, the former U.S.S.R. and Japan, did much to inform the peoples of these countries about Indian culture. But a large part of ancient India's achievements in the fine arts remain unknown to Indians.
We will exam the scenario in these areas in ancient In and how the native cultures of the countries of South-east Asia as well as of Cent Asia, the Mid East and also Europe h borrowed from India in the area of the Fine Arts.
These dancers from Bali
in Indonesia show clear
indian influences.
The people of Bali are Hindus, although
ethnically different from Indians
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MUSIC
Since Vedic times, Indians had been required to correctly recite, the Vedas. The correctness in recitation was very important as the Vedas were, in those days, transmitted through memory (Smriti) and were learnt through hearing (Shruti). This v so, as writing was absent in early Vedic times. Even today the Vedas are traditionally learnt through oral studies.
This kind of an emphasis on recitation the correct pronounciation lead to studies in phonetics and sound manupulation. This was the birthplace of Indian Musical Raga (metre) and Swaras (rhymes). That Music in ancient India was given considerable recognition is illustrated by the fact that Saraswati, the Indian goddess of learning is shown to be holding a musical instrument (Veena) in her hand.
Traditionally, vocal music in India has tended to be devotional music (Bhakti-geet), and temples have been places (as they still are) where musicians used to practice music to please the deity and the devotees. Indian vocal music is broadly divided into two schools viz. the Hindustani or north Indian school and the Carnatic or South Indian school. As far as instrumental music goes there is a general identity of instruments that have been used.
The main Indian musical instru ments are the Sarod, the Veena, the Sarangi, the Tambora, the Harmonium, the Ghata, the Tabla, the Tanpura, the Satar, etc., As compared to art and architecture Indian music has had less impact on the outside world. This was so as most of Indian musical instruments require specialised ma terial and craftsmanship for their manufac ture. And in the absence of transmission of these skills and the absence of trade in mu sical instruments, alongwith the necessity of long and ardous practice which was re quired to master these instruments, made the transmission of music a difficult task.
However, as far as, devotional vocal music goes, Indian musical traditions did travel to the countries of South east Asia. The instru mental and vocal music of Korea has many elements of Indian music, which it received alongwith the Buddhist invocative and devo tional songs and slokas (religious couplets). Alongwith Buddhism, some Indian musical instruments like the flute (bansi), temples bell (Ghanta), etc., went to the countries of south-east Asia. Even Europe owes certain instruments to India. Two popular European musical instruments namely the flute and violin are believed to be of Indian origin. Though we do not know about the process of transmission of these instruments, however in India the flute (bansi) and the violin (a variant of the Veena) are definitely indigenously Indian. A pointer to the fact that these instruments have been in usage in India since a very long time is that the bansi is associated with Sri Krishna and the Veena with the goddess Saraswati.
This apart, in modern times the western musical instruments like the Tambourin and the Tambour are adaptations of the Indian Tambora and Tanpura. The names Tambourin and Tambour are also derived from the word Tambora. The Saralngi, another Indian musical instrument has also found its place in western music. The acceptance of these musical instruments in the west is also evident from the fact that the words Tambora, Sarangi and Tabla are mentioned in the Oxford Dictionary.
An artiste with his Tambora.
The English word Tambour
is derived from the term "Tambora".
according to the Oxford Dictionary
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PAINTING
The very first works of visual art created in the Indian sub-continent were primitive cave or rock paintings. Many are assumed to exist, but the largest number of discoveries are in Central India, on sandstone rock shelters within a hundred mile radius around Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. these paintings are dated at around 5500 B.C. i.e. they are 1500 years old. Some of these paintings have been overlaid with later paintings and graffiti.
The paintings generally depict animals, in scenes such as hunting. Human figures are also shown with bows and arrows, and swords and shields. The colours used An intricately carved pillar at Ellora in Maharashtra dating back to the 7th century. are made up of natural minerals and are in various shades of red and orange. These paintings are the forerunners of the frescos of a later age which are seen at Ajanta, Ellora and elsewhere in India. But unfortunately no well preserved art remains, to document the period between the coming of the Aryans i.e. 1500 B.C. to about the time of Buddha i.e. 550 B.C.
We are told by the literary sources that the art of painting was practiced. In the Buddhist texts, elaborate palaces of kings and houses of the wealthy are described as being embellished with wall paintings. But actual evidence about this art is lost. How this art could have been, can be guessed from the paintings on stone surfaces found at Ajanta and Ellora which are said to have been done in around 400 A.D.
These paintings at Ajanta and Ellora depict Buddhist tales from the Jatakas. Though the paintings are today 1500 years old, the paint has not only retained its colour but also much of its lusture.
A finely sculpted panel
from Rajasthan. Indian Pierced Marble work
reached unparalled heights
in the middle ages
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The technique of painting has been thus described by a student of Indian Art,"The surface of the stone was first prepared by a coating of potter's clay, mixed variously with cow dung, straw, and animal hair. Once this was levelled to a thickness of half an inch to two inches, it was coated with a smooth fine white lime plaster which became the actual painting surface. On the still-damp wall, the artist first laid out his composition with a red cinnabar line and then defined the subjects with an undercoat of grey or terre verte. This was followed by the addition of local colours, and once the whole wall was completely coloured, a brown or black line restated the drawing to finish the composition. A last burnishing with a smooth stone gave it a rich lustrous surface. The colours which were natural and water soluble, consisted of purple, browns, yellow, blue, white, green, reds and black."
This painting at Ajanta
in Western India, was done in the 5th Century
It was done using vegetable colours
and has survived for 1,500 years.
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Thus it is evident that the technique of painting had developed to an advanced level This monumental bull was carved in marble in the 3rd century B.C. It stood on a column built by Emperor Ashoka, which was inscribed with Buddhist edicts.
of sophistication due which the paintings could survive for 1500 years. Though the colours used are supposed to have been derived from minerals and vegetables they had been treated to last long. The above description also illustrates how, complicated procedures of preparing the surface to be painted had evolved in India.
This technique of painting had also spread to central Asia and South-east Asia. Some strains of Indian painting can even be identified in western church paintings and mosaics. Indian influence is clearly evident in the paintings at Bamiyan in Afghanistan and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Not only do these paintings depict the Buddha but also Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya.
This pagoda complex at
Phnom Phnem in Cambodia
displays Indian influences
in its central spires.
The name Cambodia was derived from
the Sanskrit term Kamboja
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The statues in the caves at Kizil in central Asia depict Lord Krishna with Gopis (shepard maidens). The cult of Narayana had also spread to Soviet Central Asia. This is corrobotated by the discovery of Kharosthi inscriptions of the Kushana period which have been deciphered as 'Narayana be victorious'. Another panel at Kizil shows the performance of a dance style which has a close resemblance with the frescos at Ajanta.
As mentioned earlier, some Indian motifs can be traced in Gothic sculptures and paintings. The occurence of images of the lotus, elephants and the Swastika support the fact that they could have been borrowed from India as these images are traditionally Indian. Strzygowski an European archealogist has compared the masonic background of the Ajanta caves, that we referred to earlier, with the Ravenna mosaics found in Europe.
This magnificent Pagoda at Bongkok
has its own unique style
which is an amalgam of Indian
and Chinese styles.
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LINGUISTICS
The spread of Indian culture to Central Asia and South-east Asia left a permanent mark in the languages of these countries. It is not well known that for a time Sanskrit had become the lingua franca of many South-east asian countries. Even the Indian Brahmi script was used in Malaysia and some other parts of South-east Asia. This Brahmi was that which was used in southern India around 800 to 1000 A.D.
The Javanese Kawi script has been developed from the Pallava script from which Tamil, Malayalam, Telgu and Kannada scripts have also evolved. Even a cursory glance would show the resemblance between the scripts used in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, etc., with the scripts of today's South Indian Languages.
There are also a considerable number of Indian words in use in the languages of Southeast Asia. For instance in the Malayasian (Malayan) language there are the following words have been derived from Sanskrit; Bhoomiputra i.e.son of the soil, Shurga i.e. heaven which in Sanskrit is Swarga; bangsi i.e. flute, dhobi i.e. washerman, geni i.e. fire (agni in Sanskrit), etc.
In Burma also there are many Indian words. For instance the river Irawaddy (Iravati in Sanskrit)is derived from the original Sanskrit term Iravati, the word Burma is itself a corruption of the Sanskrit term Brahmadesh (land of Brahma), In Thailand we have place names like Aranyaprathet which sounds quite In dian and is a corruption of the term Aranyapradesh meaning a forested area in Sanskrit. The names of the cities viz. Singapore and Kuala Lumpur end with the term 'pur' which means city in Sanskrit. Even first names of individuals in these countries are derived form Sanskrit roots. Instances of such names are Sukarno derived form Sanskrit Sukarna, Suharto derived form the Sanskrit Suharta, Bhumibol from Sanskrit Bhumibala, Thanom Kittikachoron from Krittikacharan, and so on.
In fact in Malaysia the official title of honour given to persons of national importance is 'Tan Sri' Tan means big, and Sri is derived from the Sanskrit word Shri which roughly means 'Sir'. In Indonesia the official language is called 'Bahasha Indonesia', the word Bahasha is derived from the Sanskrit word Bhasha which means language.
The Indonesian Airways is named Garuda which means an eagle both in the Indonesian Language and in Sanskrit. There can be innumerable such instances. This goes to establish beyond doubt the contribution of India to the languages of these countries. This apart, through the medium of trade India has contributed to the lexicon of Greek, Arabic, Persian and even the English language.
Another view of the Pagoda at Bangkok
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DANCE
The mention of the word dance conjures up images of Nataraja (Lord of dance) as the Indian God Shiva is portrayed. Apart from Shiva even Ganesha and Srikrishna are associated with dance and music. India has many classical dance styles. The oldest text dealing with aesthetics covering various art forms including dance is the Natyashastra which is authored by Bharatamuni.
All the Indian classical dance styles viz. Bharata Natyam, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Odissi, Mohiniattam, Kathakali, Manipuri, etc., are derived from the Natyashastra. Some of these dance styles have evolved from folk dances and are intimately connected with the art of story telling. Most of these stories are drawn from our epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, tales from collections like the Panchatantra, Hitopadesha, Katha Sarit Sagara, etc., also from the subject matter of these dance styles. In fact the Kathak and Kathakali from U.P. and Kerala respectively, derive their names from the term Katha which in Sanskrit means a story. As the story is told in the form of dance, these dance styles can actually be called dance-dramas, the only difference is the absence of dialogues.
The Charkul dance-drama of Central India revolves around a story generally from the Indian epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Similar traditions of dance-dramas are prevalent in other parts of India too. In Maharashtra, you have the Dashavatara, in Karnataka you have the Yakshagana The Kathak dance of North India and the ktha*ali dance of Kerala also originated as dance dramas and derive their names from the Sanskrit work 'Katha' which means a story.
The story has to be told solely through actions and hence an elaborate pattern of facial expressions (Mudra), movement of hands (Hasta) and the simulation of various moods like anger (Krodha), envy (Matsara), greed (Lobha), lust (Kama), ego (Mada), etc., have been evolved. The mastery of perfect expression of these feelings by subtle movement of the lips and eyes forms the root of all the classical Indian dance styles.
In fact the combination of the three qualities viz. expression, rhyme and rhythm i.e. Bhava, Raga, and Tala go into the determination of the term Bha-Ra-Ta, which is used as the name of one dance style viz. Bharata Natyam.
The integration of Indian classical dance with the physical exercises of Yoga and the breath control of "Pranayam" has perfected the dance styles. Yoga especially had given the dance styles an excellent footwork which is called Padanyasa and Padalalitya. Another feature of these dance styles is that they are integrated with theology and worship. Traditionally these dances were partronised by the temples. During festivals and other religious occasions, these dances were performed in the temple premises to propitiate the deity. Thus the dance came to combine both art and worship. Even today every recital of any Indian classical dance begins with an invocation to Nataraja or Nateshwara the god of dance.
In Indian folklore and legend, the God of Dance is himself shown to be dancing in a form called the Tandava. This has also been depicted in the statues and carvings in temples like, Khajuraho and Konark in Northern India, and at Chidambaram, Madurai, Rameshwaram, etc. in the South.
Indian dances have also evolved styles based on the Tandava like the Urdhra Tandava, Sandhya Tandava, etc. Indian classical dance found its way outside India, especially to the countries of Southeast Asia. The dance styles of Thailand, Indonesia, Burma, etc., have so heavily borrowed from the Indian classical dance traditions that to a casual observer there would seem to be hardly any difference between the two. While Western dance has not directly borrowed anything from Indian classical dance, it has borrowed from Indian folk dance through the medium of the Gypsies.
The Gypsies originated in India
The Gypsies as has been established today, migrated from India to the west many centuries ago. The Gypsies speak a language called Romany which has many common words with Indian languages. The religion of the Gypsies is a modified form of early Hinduism. The Gypsies seem to have been the Banjar nomads who are still found in India. Being a very carefree nomadic community the Gypsies earned their living by giving performance of folk dances, alongwith the persuing of other nomadic activities.
Gypsy dance has influenced western dance styles like the Waltz and the foxtrot. Even the American Break dance and other dances associated with jazz music have borrowed elements from the gypsy folk dance. The Gypsy folk dance, is itself a free flowing and care free dance, a modified version of which is found in the folk dances of many Adivasi and nomadic tribal communities in India.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:19 PM
THEATRE
The origin of the Indian theatre or rather folk theatre and dramatics can be traced to religious ritualism of the Vedic Aryans. This folk theatre of the misty past was mixed with dance, ritualism, plus a depiction of events from daily life. It was the last element which made it the origin of the classical theatre of later times. Many historians, notably D.D. Kosambi, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Adya Rangacharaya, etc. have referred to the prevalance of ritualism amongst Aryan tribes in which some members of the tribe acted as if they were wild animals and some others were the hunters. Those who acted as animals like goats, buffaloes, reindeer, monkeys, etc. were chased by those playing the role of hunters and a mock hunt was enacted.
In such a simple and crude manner did the theatre originate in India nearly 4000 years back in the tribal Aryans of Rig Vedic times. There also must have existed a theatrical tradition in the Indus valley cities, but of this we have no literary numismatic or any other material proof.
The origin of drama and the theatre has been told to us in an aptly dramatic manner by Bharatamui, the author of Natyashastra an ancient Indian text on dance and drama. Bharatamuni is said to have lived around the 4th century but even he is not aware of the actual origin of the theatre in India. He has cleverly stated in a dramatic manner that it was the lord of creation Brahma who also created the original Natyashastra (Drama). According to Bharatamuni, since the lord Brahma created the entire universe we need not question his ability in creating dramas.
But Bharatamuni goes on to tell us that the original Natyashastra of Brahma was too unwieldy and obscure to be of any practical use. Hence, Bharatamuni, himself took up the task of making Natyashastra simple, intelligible and interesting. Thus the Natyashastra of Bharatamuni was supported to be understood by lay people. So the Natyashastra of Bharatamunii is not the oldest text on dance and drama, as Bharata himself says that he has only simplified the original work of lord Brahma. The Natyashastra assumes the existence of many plays before it was composed, and says that most of the early plays did not follow the rules set down in the Natyashastra.
But the Natyashastra itself seems to be the first attempt to develop the technique or rather art, of drama in a systematic manner. The Natya Shastra a tells us not only what is to be portrayed in a drama, but how the portrayal is to be done. Drama, as Bharatamuni says, is the imitation of men and their doings (loka-vritti). As men and their doings have to be respected on the stage, so drama in Sanskrit is also known by the term roopaka which means portrayal.
According to the Natyashastra all the modes of expression employed by an individual viz. speech, gestures, movements and intonation must be used. The representation of these expressions can have different modes (vritti) according to the predominance and emphasis on one mode or another. Bharatamuni recognises four main modes viz., Speech and Poetry (Bharati Vritti), Dance and Music (Kaishiki Vritti), Action (Arabhatti Vritti) and Emotions (Sattvatti Vritti).
Bharatamuni also specifies where and how a play is to be performed. In ancient India plays were generally performed either in temple-yard or within palace precints. During public performances, plays were generally performed in the open. For such public performances, Bharatamuni has advocated the construction of a mandapa. According to the Natyashastra in the construction of a mandapa, pillars must be set up in four corners. With the help of these pillars a paltform is built of wooden planks. The area of the mandapa is divided into two parts. The front part, which is the back stage is called the r angashrishu. Behind the ranga-shirsha is what was called the nepathya-griha, where the characters dress up before entering the stage.
Bharatamuni has also specified that every play should have a Sutradhara which literally means 'holder of a string'. The Sutradhara was like the producer-director of today. Every play had to begin with an inovation of God. This invocation was called the poorvaranga. Even today, plays in Indian languages begin with a devotional song called Naandi. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata can be called the first recognised plays that originated in India.
These epics also provided the inspiration to the earliest Indian dramatists and they do even today. One of the earliest Indian dramatists was Bhasa whose plays have been inspired by the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Bhasa's date cannot be definitely ascertained, but that he lived before Kalidasa is proved by the latter's reference to Bhasa as one of the early leading playwrights. As Kalidasa lived in the 4th century, Bhasa should have lived in the early centuries of our era. Bhasa was a natural dramatist who drew heavily from the epics, but Kalidasa can be called an original playwright.
Kalidasa has written many plays, some of which are; AbhijananShakuntalam, Kumarsambhavam, Meghadutam and Malavikagnimitram. Kalidasa was the court playwright at the Gupta court. He lived at Ujjaini, the capital of the Guptas and was for some days the Gupta ambassador at the court of the Vakatakas at Amaravati where he wrote the play Meghadutam.
The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti. He is said to have written the following three plays viz. Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic, Ramayana. Bhavabhuti lived around the 7th century A.D., when Sanskrit drama was on its decline, mainly due to the lack of royal patronage. The last royal patron of Sanskrit drama seems to be king Harshavardhana of the 7th century. Harshavardhana is himself credited with having written three plays viz. Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda.
But nevertheless despite lack of patronage two more leading playwrights came after Bhavabhuti, they were Shudraka whose main play was the Mricchakatikam, and the second dramatist was Rajashekhara whose play was titled Karpuramanjari. But the decline of Sanskrit theatre is evident from the fact that while Mricchakatikam was in Sanskrit, the Karpuramanjari was in Prakrit which was a colloquial form of Sanskrit. Rajashekhara has himself said that he chose to write in Prakrit as the language was soft while Sanskrit was harsh. Sanskrit plays continued to be written upto the 17th century in distant pockets of the country, mainly in the Vijayanagara empire of the South. But they had passed their prime, the later Sanskrit dramas are mostly imitations of Kalidasa or Bhavabhuti.
As in the case of the other fine arts, the Indian theatre has left its mark on the countries of South-east Asia. In Thailand, especially it has been a tradition from the middle ages to stage plays based on plots drawn from Indian epics. This had been so even in Cambodia where, at the ancient capital Angkor Wat, stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata have been carved on the walls of temples and palaces. Similar, bas reliefs are found at Borobudur in Indonesia. Thus, the Indian theatre has been one of the vehicles of enriching the culture of our neighbouring countries since ancient times.
We can conclude this chapter with the words of an Arab historian of the middle ages, named Abu Mashar.
"The Indians are the first nation very large in numbers and belonging to a noble country. All the ancient people have acknowledged their wisdom and accepted their excellence in various branches of knowledge."
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:23 PM
SPORTS AND GAMES in Ancient India
In the area of recreation and sports India had evolved a number of games. One would be surprised to know today that games like, Chess, Snakes and Ladders, Playing Cards, Polo, the martial arts of Judo and Karate had originated in India and it was from here that these games were transmitted to foreign countries, where they were further developed.
Some Indian games were not transmitted abroad and remained confined to India. For instance we have Kabbadi, Kho-Kho, AtyaPatya, Malkhamb, Gulli-danda, etc., which are being played today exclusively in India. In this chapter we shall look into how the games like Chess and Ludo (Snakes and Ladders), the martial art of Karate, and Playing cards had existed in India for the past 2000 years and how in some cases the indigenous form of the game became totally extinct erasing the fact that- the game had ever been played in India.
Kalaripayat from Kerala
was transmitted to China by
a sage named Boddhidharma
in the 5th century
The Chinese called him Po-ti-tama
He taught this art in a temple
This temple is today known as
the Shaolin temple
Thus Judo, Karate, Kung Fu and other
similar marshal arts
which are today identified
with the far-east actually
originated from India.
At times the changes made in the original nature of the Indian sport-forms were so many and so fundamental that the game lost all similarity with its original form in India.
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:25 PM
CHESS
A game very similar to modern Chess and Ludo was played in ancient India. In this game there used to be four participants due to which it was named Chaturanga meaning 'four bodies'. This four-bodied game was played with counters and a dice (aksha). Another name for this game was Astapada meaning 'eight steps'. This game was perhaps the progenitor of both modern day games of Chess and Ludo. There are instances in Indian history of this game being played.
One such instance is in the Mahabharata when Pandavas and Kauravas play this game. Yudhistira the eldest of the Pandavas places his bets on his kingdom, his wife Draupadi and all other material possessions. And by a malevolent trick he loses to the Kauravas everything that he had placed his bets on. Consequently to humiliate the Pandavas, Dushasana one of the evil Kaurava brothers takes hold of Draupadi whom Yudhisthira has lost to the Kauravas, and tries to disrobe her in front of the assembled court. The Pandavas though powerful are helpless as they have lost Draupadi and according to the rules of the game they have no claim on her anymore.
In distress, Draupadi invokes Lord Srikrishna to come to her rescue. And in answer to her prayers the lord appears and in a miracle sends a continuous stream of apparel to clothe Draupadi's body. The evil Dushasana tires himself out trying to tear away Draupadi's clothes but he is powerless against the divine strength of Lord Srikrishna. After hours of struggling to achieve his evil intention he falls unconscious to the floor. Draupadi's honour is saved. In deference to Lord Srikrishna's wishes, the Kauravas relinquish their claim to Draupadi. But in return the Pandavas are obliged to relinquish their kingdom for fourteen years and go into exile in forests, after which they return and regain their kingdom from the Kauravas, but not before a devastating war is fought between the two clans on the battlefield of Kurutshetra.
The Mahabharata story throws light on the fact that a game similar to Chess was played in ancient India. The Mahabharata is variously dated around 800 and 1100 B.C. Thus this game was known in India nearly 3000 years ago. It is the view of some historians that this game was also used in the allocation of land among different members of a clan when a new settlement was being established.
The Indian origin of the game of chess is supported even by the Encylopedia Britannica according to which, "About 1783-89 Sir. William Jones, in an essay published in the 2nd Vol. of Asiatic Researches, argued that Hindustan was the cradle of chess, the game having been known there from time immemorial by the name Chaturanga, that is, the four angas, or members of an army, which are said in the Amarakosha (an ancient Indian Dictionary - S.B.) to be elephants, horses, chariots and foot soldiers. As applicable to real armies, the term Chaturanga is frequently used by the epic poets of India. Sir William Jones' essay is substantially a translation of the Bhawishya Purana, in which is given a description of a four-handed game of chess played with dice." "Sir William, however, grounds his opinions as to the Hindu origin of chess upon the testimony of the Persians and not upon the above manuscript," He lays it down that chess, under the Sanskrit name Chaturanga was exported from India into Persia in the 6th century of our era; that by a natural corruption, the old Persians changed the name into chatrang; but when their country was soon afterwards taken possession of by the Arabs, who had neither the initial nor the final letter of the word in their alphabet, they altered it further into Shatranj, which name found its way presently into modern Persian and ultimately into the dialects of India."
The Encyclopedia Britannica further says that Wander Linde, in his exhaustive work, Geschichte and Litteraturdes Schachspiels (1874), has much to say of the origin-theories, nearly all of which he treats as so many myths. He agrees with those who consider that the Persians received the game from the Hindus. The outcome of his studies appears to be that chess certainly existed in Hindustan in the 8th century, and that probably that country is the land of its birth. He inclines to the idea that the game originated among the Buddhists, whose religion was prevalent in India from the 3rd to the 9th century. According to their ideas, war and slaying of one's own fellow-men, for any purpose whatever, is criminal, and the punishment of the warrior in the next world will be much worse than that of the simple murderer, hence chess was invented as a substitute for war. "
"H.J.R. Murry in his monumental work A History of Chess, comes to the conclusion that chess is a descendant of an Indian game played in the 7th century."
According to the Encylopedia "Altogether, therefore, we find the best authorities agreeing that chess existed in India before it is known to have been played anywhere else. In this supposition they are strengthened by the names of the game and some of its pieces. Shatranj as Forbes has pointed out, is a foreign word among the Persians and the Arabians, whereas its natural derivation from the term Chaturanga is obvious. Again affix the Arabic name for the bishop, means the elephant, derived from alephhind, the Indian elephant." Even the word checkmate is derived from the Persian term Shah Mat which means 'the king is dead!'. The Sanskrit translation of this term would be Kshatra Mruta. Another term viz. 'the rooks' which is the name for one set of the counters used in chess, originated from the Persian term Roth which means a soldier. The Persian term according to the Encyclopedia is derived from the Indian term Rukh, which obviously seems to have originated in the Sanskrit word Rakshak which means a soldier from Raksha which means 'to protect'.
About the introduction of this game into Persia, the Encylopedia says that "The Persian poet Firdousi, in his historical poem, the Shahnama, gives an account of the introduction of Shatranj into Persia in the reign of Chosroes I Anushirwan, to whom came ambassadors from the sovereign of Hind (India), with a chess-board and men asking him to solve the secrets of the game, if he could or pay tribute. The king asked for seven days grace, during which time the wise men vainly tried to discover the secret.
Finally, the king's minister took the pieces home and discovered the secret in a day and a night."
The Encyclopedia Britannica concludes that "Other Persian and Arabian writers state that Shatranj came into Persia from India and there appears to be a concensus of opinion that may be considered to settle the question. Thus we have the game passing from the Hindus to the Persians and then to the Arabians, after the capture V of Persia by the Caliphs in the 7th century, and from them, directly or indirectly, to various parts of Europe, at a time which cannot be definitely fixed, but either in or before the 10th century. That the source of the European game is Arabic is clear enough, nor merely from the words "check" and "mate", which are evidently from Shah mat ("the king is dead"), but also from the names of some of the pieces".
Thus it was from India that the ancient Persians are said to have learnt this game, and from them it was transmitted to the Greco Roman world. The evidence of the Persians having borrowed this game from India is seen in the name the Persians gave to it. The Persian word for chess is Chatrang, which was later changed by the Arabs to Shatranj. As said in Encyclopedia Britannica, thig word is obviously a corruption of the Sanskrit original Chaturanga.
The other term Astapada meaning eight steps, which was also used to describe this game in ancient India, perhaps was a description for the eight steps (Squares) which the modern Chessboard, has. The modern Chessboard is chequered with 64 (8 x 8) squares in all, with eight squares on each side. The old English word for chess which is Esches, possibly stems from this eight squared aspect of the game as did the Sanskrit word Astapada.
Chess originated in ancient
India and was known as "Chatur-Anga"
Meaning 4 bodied, as it was played by
4 players. From this name
we have its current name "Shatranj"
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:27 PM
PLAYING CARDS
The game of playing cards was also one of the favourite pastimes of Indians in ancient times. This game was patronised especially by the royalty and nobility. This game was known in ancient times as Kridapatram, in the middle ages, it was known as Ganjifa. In medieval India Ganjifa cards were played in practically all royal courts. This game is recorded to have been played in Rajputana, Kashyapa Meru (Kashmir), Utkala (Orissa) the Deccan and even in Nepal. The Mughals also patronised this game, but the Mughal card-sets differ from those of the ancient Indian royal courts.
Some scholars are of the opinion that this game was in fact introduced into India by the Mughals. But according to Abul Fazal author of the Ain-e-Akbari, the game of cards was of Indian origin and that it was a very popular pastime in the Indian (Hindu) courts when the Muslims came into India. According to Abul Fazal's description of the game, the following cards were used. The first was Ashvapati which means 'lord of horses'. The Ashvapati which was the highest card in, the pack represented the picture of the king on horseback. The second highest card represented a General (Senapati) on horseback. After this card come ten other with pictures of horses from one to ten.
Another set of cards had the Gajapati (lord of elephants) which represented the king whose power lay in the number of elephants. The other eleven cards in this pack represented the Senapati and ten others with a soldier astride an elephant. Another pack has the Narpati, a king whose power lies in his infantry. We also had other cards known as the Dhanpati, the lord of treasures, Dalpati the lord of the squadron, Navapati, the lord of the navy, Surapati, the lord of divinities, Asrapati, lord of genii, Vanapati, the king of the forest and Ahipati, lord of snakes, etc.
On the authority of Abul Fazal we can say that the game of playing cards had been invented by sages in ancient times who took the number 12 as the basis and made a set of 12 cards. Every king had 11 followers, thus a pack had 144 cards. The Mughals retained 12 sets having 96 cards. These Mughal Ganjifa sets have representations of diverse trades like Nakkash painter, Mujallid book binder, Rangrez, dyer, etc., In addition there were also the Padishah-i-Qimash, king of the manufacturers and Padishah-izar-i-Safid, king of silver, etc.
The pre-Mughal origin of the game of cards is evident if we examine the pattern of painting the cards. We also find that despite the observation of Abul Fazal that Akbar introduced the pack with 8 sets, we find that even earlier, in Indian (Hindu) courts we have packs with 8, 9 and 10 sets apart from the usual 12. The numbers were derived from the eight cardinal directions Ashtadikpala, for the pack with 8 set, from the nine planets Navagraha for the one with 9 sets and from ten incarnations Dashavatara of Vishnu for the pack with 10 sets.
Themes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata are painted on these cards. The largest number of such cards are to be found in Orrisa. The largest number of such cards are to be found in Orissa. The painters from Orissa have represented various illustrations like the Navagunjara, a mythical birdhuman animal which was the form xassumed by Sri Krishna to test Arjuna's fidelity, il lustrations from the Dashavatata of Vishnu are also portrayed.
All these cards were hand-made and were painted in the traditional style. This required considerable patience and hard meticulous work. The kings usually commissioned painters to make cards as per their preference. The commoners got their cards made by local artists who were to be ; found in urban and rural areas. In order to -obtain the required thickness a number of sheets of pieces of cloth were glued together. The outlines of the rim were painted in black and then the figures were filled with colours.
As cards were played by members all strata of society we find different types of cards. Some cards were also made of ivory, tortoise shell, mother of pearl, inlaid or enamelled with precious metals. The cards were of different shapes; they were circular, oval rectangular, but the circular cards were more common. The cards were usually kept in a wooden box with a lid painted with mythological figures. This art of handmade, hand painted cards which had survived for hundreds of years. gradually feel into decay and became extinct with the introduction of printed paper cards by the Europeans in the 17-18th centuries. With the extinction of the art of making and painting cards also was erased the memory that Indians ever had played the game of cards with their own specific representations of the Narapati, Gajapati and Ashvapati.
(a) Surprising though the
popular game of cards
originated in ancient India
and was known as Krida-patram in ancient India
(b) Cards were known as
Krida-patram in ancient India
These cards were made of cloth
and depicted motifs from the
Ramayana, Mahabharata, etc
A tradition carried on today with
floral motifs and natural scenery
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:29 PM
THE MARTIAL ARTS - KARATE AND JUDO
Many eyebrows would be raised when an Indian lays claim to the martial arts of Judo and Karate. Such askance is understandable. Everybody the world over knowns that it was the countries of the far-east China, Korea and Japan who have given these arts to us. The finest exponents of Karate, Judo come from these countries, schools like Shaolin and Ninja that have nurtured these arts are from the far-east. But in the distant corner of India a dying martial art exists which comes significantly close to Karate. This art from is called Kalaripayate. The practitioners of Kalaripayate have to develop acrobatic capabilities and use swords or knives to attack an opponent.
Even an unarmed exponent of Kalaripayate presents an invincible adversary.
This art from seems to have travelled from India to the countries of the far-east alongwith the Buddhist religion. Buddhists monks who travelled barefoot and unarmed to spread the gospel of Buddha seem to have accepted this art with alterations suitable to the philosophy of nonviolence. Such a technique of defence would have been necessary for them as they travelled individually or in small groups in foreign lands during which they were exposed to dangers from bandits and fanatics from other religions. Buddhist monks seem to have tempered the originally violent character of this art. The violent and exterminative nature of Kalaripayate is evient from the daggers and knives that are used. Unlike Kalaripayate, Judo and Karate do not allow the use of lethal weapons.
The aim of a Karate practitioner is mainly to disarm and disable his opponent without mortally wounding him. This can be looked upon as a reflection of the Buddhist attitude towards life. Further both Judo and Karate are deeply interwoven with meditation unlike other martial arts like boxing, wrestling, fencing, etc. The concentration aspect in Judo and Karate perhaps stems from this. Both Judo and Karate are sought to be kept as arts to be used for just purposes for pro tection of the weak, etc.,
The oath that every student of these disciplines has to take is evidence of this. A teacher of Judo or Karate traditionally commands deep respect of students and a lesson always starts with a bow of the students to the teacher. The teacher here is not looked upon only as a coach as in western martial arts like boxing and fencing. This relationship between a teacher and student in Judo and Karate could have its roots in the Guru-Shishya tradition of India.
Thus it is quite possible that these martial art forms originated in southern India and were transmitted to China, Korea and Japan by Buddhist monks. But it has to be conceded that they were neglected in India where like Buddhism they atrophied and today the world considers them to be a legacy bequeated by the countries of the far-east.
Judo and karate which are
coming to India from the far-east
originated in ancient India
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:32 PM
Ancient India's Contribution to PHILOSOPHY
QUOTE:
"In religion, India is the only millionaire ....
The One land that all men desire to see and
having seen once, by even a glimpse, would not
give that glimpse for all the shows of
all the rest of the globe combined".
- Mark Twain
- American Author 1835-1910
Philosophy, logic, theology are areas which have become typecast with India. To a person from outside India, this culture has nothing to offer other than the knowledge about these areas. As far as material culture goes, India had nothing to contribute, is the popular impression among people from the rest of our globe today as also among most Indians. The foregoing chapters have thrown light on the advances made by this country in the material sciences and the transmission of these advances abroad.
This image of Buddha
from Kashmir dates back to the
8th Century.
Through Buddhism
and Hinduism Indian values
such as non-violence (Ahimsa),
renunciation (Tyaga),
piety (Shraddha),
charity (Dana and Dakshina)
influenced other cultures
especially early Christianity
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MEDITATION AND RENUNCIATION
Indian religions,(Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) are replete with philosophies that advocate renunciation. The Hindu Philosophy of Advaita-Vedanta looks upon the visible material world as an illusion (Maya) and considers the supreme reality (Brahmam) to lie beyond it, not visible to humans. This approach is characteristically expressed in the dictum; 'Jagat Mithya Brahman Satya' wherein Jagat means world, Mitya means illusion, Brahman means supreme and Satya means truth. The concept of Maya that has been made part of the Advaita-Vedanta school of Philosophy, also has a similar connotation. Sadhus and Rishis (ascetics) and hermits have propagated this approach to life.
Traditionally, Hindu philosophy divides life for male members of society in four parts (Ashramas). The first part is Brahmacharya i.e. childhood and celibate youth, the second is Grihasta i.e. householder, the third is Vanaprasta i.e. householder, devoted to spiritual pursuits and finally Sanyasa i.e. householder who has given up worldly pleasures and roams the world, seeking spiritual solace and spreads the message of righteousness. The last stage Sanyasa, was glorified, and many householders gave up their family responsibilities prematurely and took up the life of a Sanyasi. Some persons took up this form of life right since their boyhood and lived like Sanyasis throughout their lives.
Today the situation is vastly different but the crass day-to-day material life does create a yearning to go away from it all and retire to an environment which is devoid of material considerations. This is one reason why an increasing number of well to do westerners are turning towards oriental philosophies and orange-robed westerners with shaven heads on which is perched a tuft and pig tail are a common sight in India and in many Western cities.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:34 PM
AHIMSA - NON VIOLENCE
Most of us are familiar with the terms Nonviolence and Ahimsa. In the recent past i.e. during India's freedom struggle, Mahatma Gandhi had forged Non-violence into a political weapon to peacefully push out British imperialism. While, how far this attitude was effective in throwing off the colonial yoke would remain a matter of debate, it can indisputably be said that the technique of non-violent political agitation did obtain a mass base for India's freedom struggle without attracting extreme penalties from the British administration. Non-violent agitation also enabled nationalist Indian leaders to keep alive the. struggle for independence in the absence of an armed insurrection. The roots of our attitude of non-violence go deep into our history. It has been integrated with almost all religions originating in ancient times in the Indian sub-continent viz. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.
But contrary to popular belief it has not been part of Indian culture since time immemorial. Our Vedic literature is silent on this concept. The Rigveda talks of wars, struggles, victories, etc., even animal sacrifices and meat eating was allowed. The concept of ahimsa could have first developed in Jainism, which as we know split from the mainstream of Vedic beliefs very early in Indian history. Jainism disapproves Vedic rituals of animal sacrifice.
The concept of Jivadaya i.e. equal respect for all life forms seems to have been first enunciated ih Jainism. But ahimsa is more popularly associated with Buddhism perhaps because this religion was more widespread. This concept was also absorbed into Hinduism where it took the form of worship of the cow and bull, ban on animal sacrifices and vegetarianism.
In ancient times, the values of non-violence and vegetarianism were transmitted outside India via Buddhism. This was so because unlike Hinduism, Buddhism had a tradition of diffusion of its beliefs though persistent missionary activity. Along with this, Buddhism received the unstinted support of powerful Indian kings like Samrat Ashoka, Kanishka and Harsha. These kings presided over large empires and apart from encourag ing the spread of Buddhism all over their empires, they also encouraged missionaries to visit other countries to spread the message of the Buddha. Buddhism which itself is a significant contribution of India to world culture also acted as a vehicle for promoting the philosophy of non-violence.
This religion was at one time, spread over vast areas from the Volga to Japan. Buddhism continues to be the religion of a majority of the peoples of the far east. And though Buddhism has acquired a local character in different countries for instance, Zen Buddhism and Shintoism (which is an amalgam of Buddhism with local beliefs) in Japan, Lamaism in Tibet, etc., it has retained the principal features like non-violence, meditation and renunciation which were a part of the parent religion.
The people of central Asia also professed Buddhism before the advent of Islam, the official support given to Buddhist missionary activity was the reason which enabled the philosophy of non-violence to cross the frontiers of India and exercise a sobering effect over minds of people for a long time. It is worth recounting the episode in the life of emperor-Ashoka Maurya which made him turn to Buddhism and become its first major royal patron.
Emperor Ashoka who ruled from Pataliputra (modern Patna) was the third ascendant to the Maurya throne. He had inherited the vast Maurya empire whose foundations were laid by his illustrious grandfather Chandragupta Maurya who had driven the Greeks out of India and had politically united the country for the first time. Only tiny nitches of the country had remained untouched by Chandragupta's truculent armies. Among these nitches were the extreme southern tip of the Indian peninsula and the kingdom of Kalinga (modern Orissa) to the east. When emperor Ashoka came to the thorne he wanted to complete the task left unfinished by his grandfather. Towards this end he harnessed all the military resources available in his mighty empire and began to take survey by visiting every province.
All petty kings and chieftains who had been reduced to vassals came and paid tribute to the mighty emperor. Used as he had been to unchallenged submission, Emperor Ashoka was amazed when he saw that Kumara the king of a small but independent province of Kalinga chose to meet the emperor not with tributes but with an army ranged in battle formation. The brave but arrogant king of Kalinga proved no match for the strength of the imperial armies of emperor Ashoka and after a furious battle, the army of Kalinga was reduced to tatters. Kumara the obsti nate king was captured alive and brought before emperor Ashoka. Victory was com plete but the price of victory was the thousands of dead among whom were Ashoka's famous generals and his kith and kin.
The magnitude of victory was not enough to drown the remorse felt by the emperor. In solitude, Ashoka reflected on the suffering his ambition had brought on the thousands of slain, wounded and orphaned who bore him no evil. To overcome his deep sense of guilt, Ashoka summoned a Buddhist monk to show him the right path. In keeping with Buddhist philosophy, the monk advised Ashoka to conquer himself before setting out to conquer the world.
The conquest of another person was not be had by defeating him but by winning him over.
Piety and charity were the tools for such conquest. Convinced on this point, emperor Ashoka, thenceforth forsook the path of conquest by subjugation and set out to conquer by good will and charity. He proclaimed this mes sage over all parts of his empire by carving rock edicts on pillars which carried his ensign, the triple lions. He sent forth mission aries to all parts of the known world. Even his own son Mahendra, he sent to Sri Lanka to spread the gospel of Buddhism.
And in India he established what can be termed the first welfare state. To guard against the excesses of regal power he pro vided for constitutional checks to be respected by an emperor. Ashoka's liberalising reforms touched all facets of the nation's life. Till then there had not been an emperor, who immortalised his name in history with charity, piety and goodwill as his only weapons. Today after nearly 2500 years Ashoka's memory is still alive. His wheel of righteousness (Dharmachakra) adorns our national flag and his triple lions are out national ensign.
This philosophy of non-violence which also nourished our attitude of religious tolerance was not unique to Buddhism. It pervaded over Jainism and Hinduism. In Jainism where perhaps it was born, it was carried to extreme limits in the concepts of Jivadaya i.e. respect for all living forms whereby a Jaina apart from not indulging in killing or harming any living creature, must observe restrictions such as covering the mouth to prevent himself from swallowing living creatures that exist in the air, for the same reason he should not ignite a fire, etc.
Even amongst the Hindus this attitude of respect for all living beings (Jivadaya or Bhootadaya) is prevalent as also are vegetarianism and worship of bovine creatures (cow and bull). All these traits in our cultures have been nourished by the philosophy of Non-violence which in earlier times we gave to the world along with the Buddhist religion.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:35 PM
RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE
The constitution of modern India has granted the freedom of worship to members of all faiths. India is a 'Soverign, Socialist, Secular Democratic Republic. The term 'secular' means for us 'religious tolerance'. Religious tolerance in India is not a gift of modern times, it has existed in ancient India, though it suffered an eclipse during the medieval ages under hostile alien rule and later under colonial rule.
The colonial British administration followed a policy of divide and rule by pitting one religious community against another. That this policy culminated in the tragic surgery of partition and its bloody aftermath is well known and does not call for elaboration here. The question that could haunt the minds of an average Indian is, why did India opt for a policy of equality of all religions in the post partition period when the partition itself was undertaken on communal lines with the object of carving out a separate state for the members of one particular religion?
The answer perhaps lies in the nature of Hinduism which is the religion of the majority in India. The pantheistic character of Hinduism is condusive to pluralism and religions tolerance. Absorption of a deity or belief from another religion does not affect its pluralistic character. Hence it is assimilative, unlike monotheistic religions where the consciousness about identity and purity are much more strict, as the acceptance of a deity or beliefs from another religion would alter the character of a monotheistic religion. To prevent its identity from being diluted, a monotheistic religion tends to be singularistic and exclusive and does not tolerate the existence of other forms of worship within itself or around itself. Rather than tolerating other forms of worship it attempts to convert members of other faiths to itself. When such a religion has the support of the force of arms, it normally follows a policy of presecuting members of other religions to compel them to convert to it.
Such a religion builds up a theocratic state to ensure its existence. The history of India under Muslim occupation from the 13th century to roughly the end of the 18th century and of Pakistan since 1947 till today are evidences of this.
The pantheistic character of Hinduism which is a fertile base for a polity that tolerates different religions has been with us since ancient times. Many foreigners who came to India as invaders were themselves absorbed into Indian culture so much so that they lost their position of being foreigners and many ancient Indian kings whom we look upon as Indians were actually of. foreign descent.
Notable among such kings are Kanishka who was a Kushana (Mongol) and Milinda who was a Greek. Many an Hindu Kingdom gave refuge to foreigners who came to India to escape persecution in their home country. In this context the episode of the Parsis is worth recalling:
In the 7th century, Persia which had been a powerful empire under the Sassanian rulers had been subjugated by the Arabs. The Sassanians were patrons of Zoroastrianism and had held the stage for nearly four hundred years, when out of the blue, the Arabs broke in, spurred on by their new found zeal in Islam. The victory of the Arabs had reversed the balance of power in the region and the Persians who had till then reigned supreme over many peoples including the Arabs, found themselves subjugated by a race whose masters they once where.
The Arabs did not stop at military subjugation-of the territories-they overran but in accordance with their concept of Jihad (holy war) they systematically set about converting the local population to Islam. All non-Islamic people were looked upon as heretics (Kafirs) and who, unless they consented to embrace the true faith, were no better than chattel. That, Zoroastrianism was not able to survive the rude shock of Arab rule is evident from the near total extinction of that religion in the land of its birth. But to preserve the religion of their birth, a group of enterprising Zoroastrians decided to flee their mother country and come to India by the sea route around 700 A.D. Though there are various accounts of their emigration, a group of Zoroastrians are re ported to have landed at a place called San jan on the coast of Gujarat in western India.
They approached the local king Jadi Rana (Yadav Rana), to ask for refuge.
On seeing their plight the king was moved, but before assenting, he asked his minister as to the possible reprecussions of their absorption into his kingdom. After interrogating the refugees, the minister was convinced of their bonafides. While recommending their case to his king the enlightened minis ter placed before the king a bowl of milk and stirred it after adding a lump of sugar. He then asked the king to separate the sugar from the milk. The puzzled king asked him the reason for this demonstration In reply the minister remarked that the Zoroastrians may be absorbed into the king dom but they should merge with the local populace in a manner that they become an inseparable part of society, the way sugar had merged with milk.
To ensure what his minister had said the king granted refuge to these people who had come from a foreign land and followed an unfamiliar religion. And to ensure their merger into the local populace he decreed that these new citizens lay down their arms, they adopt the local language (Gujarati) and the local dress (Sari). These Zoroastrians from Iran have since then constituted a small but cohesive and dynamic community in Indian society.
The spirit of religious tolerance is one feature that post-independence India has sought to revive, and it forms part of our polity today.
Varanasi or Kashi has been one of the
most sacred Indian pilgrimage centers
for over Three thousand years
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 07:42 PM
QUOTE:
"It is already becoming clearer that
a chapter which has a western beginning will have
to have an Indian ending if it is not to end in
the self-destruction of the human race...
At this supremely dangerous moment in history
the only way of salvation for mankind is the Indian Way. "
- Dr. Arnold Toynbee (British Historian 1889-1975)
Foreign commentators who visited India like Strabo, Megasthanes, Fa Hien, Huien Tsiang, Marco Polo, Pliny, Ibn Batuta, Al Beruni, etc., have noted the progress made by Indians. This can be seen in their writings despite the bias some of the writers had against India.
This much is enough to dispel the notion that India has always been a nation dependent on other countries, has been ruled by aliens and has borrowed everything from foreign sources. A nation whose people always thought that other countries represent greener pastures for better education, employment and living.
No, they had universities like Nalanda and Takshashila, metropolises like Pataliputra and Ujjaini, emperors like Chandragupta Maurya and Samrat Ashoka, scholars like Pannini and Kautilya.
Today though India has fallen behind in the race of progress, held back by the dead weight of nearly a millenniuum of alien rule, they have proved to the world that great Indians need not only be, Kalidas, Shusruta or Ashoka but they still have a Tagore, a Raman and a Mahatma Gandhi. India can still do it, it is up to them to prove it.
(a) Guilded Buddha at Bangkok
Buddhism has been one of
India's ennobling contributions to the World's Culture
(b) The Ashoka Pillar symbolizes
the 3 virtues of Piety, Charity, and Service
Buddhism - the world's first
missionary religion nurtured
selfless service to humankind
which later influenced the Catholic Church
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 11:30 PM
Scientific Verification of Vedic Knowledge
A must see video for all those who want to learn about Indias past:
[url]http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7678538942425297587&q=vedic&hl=en
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1975920290041145792
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1497836862490301690
[/url]
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-21 11:36 PM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 11:39 PM
Vedic Mathematics Part 1
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1497836862490301690
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-21 11:48 PM
India's Modern Architectural Wonders
The country's forthcoming wave of slick contemporary architecture is a potent symbol of its rocketing economy
http://www.businessweek.com/inno ... 972.htm?chan=search
India's rise as a 21st century global economic force is mirrored in a new building boom of corporate campuses, shopping malls, movie studios, and skyscrapers, many of which reflect a growing trend of sustainable architecture. Just as the classic Indian wonders of the world "from the elegant Taj Mahal to the spectacular temples at Khajurahoï"evoke a characteristically South Asian style, India's newest wonders distinguish themselves from other nations' contemporary building types.
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-22 12:06 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 01:29 AM
Swaminarayan Akshardham
(an imposing cultural monument on the banks of the Yamuna in New Delhi)
The monument is built on a 100-acre complex that showcases Indian art, culture and values. It combines traditional stone art and architecture, Indian culture and civilization, ancient values and wisdom and the best of modern technology.
The main monument is a marvel in pink sandstone and white marble that is 141 feet high, 316 feet wide and 370 feet long. Designed and sculpted entirely according to the ancient Indian sthapati shastras (ancient architectural practices), it is built to last thousands of years, profusely carved with 234 ornate pillars, over 20,000 murtis (idols) of deities and rishis, and delicate statues and statuettes, decorative arches and layers of sculpted Indian flora and fauna, reviving authentic Hindu carvings. The monument rises on the shoulders of 148 huge stone elephants, depicting ancient tales from the Purans and Panchtantra. And like a necklace, a double-storied parikrama (verandah) of red sandstone encircles the monument, with over 155 samrans (pyramidal roof) and 1,160 pillars.
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-22 01:30 AM ]
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 04:22 AM
I just like this picture:
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 04:39 AM
Indian Contributions to American and Global Progress
http://www.stephen-knapp.com/indian_contributions_to_american_progress.htm
While traveling and giving lectures in India last winter (December, 2002), a few questions that were presented to me was how America seems to be so progressive, as if it is the Americans themselves and their lifestyle that should be followed. However, I pointed out that it is the inter-cultural contribution that makes the progress in America possible, including those made by Indians. The following includes a few of the points I made in answer to such questions.
1. Who is the co-founder of Sun Microsystems? Vinod Khosla. The Sun founder also had an Indian Professor in Computer Technologies at Louisiana State University.
2. Who is the creator of the Pentium chip (needs no introduction as 90% of the today's computers run on it)? Vinod Dham.
3. Who is the third richest man in the world? According to the latest report on Fortune Magazine, it is AZIM PREMJI, who is the CEO of Wipro Industries. The Sultan of Brunei is at 6th position now.
4. Who is the founder and creator of Hotmail (Hotmail is world's No.1 web based email program)? Sabeer Bhatia.
5. Who is the president of AT & T-Bell Labs (AT &T-Bell Labs is the creator of program languages such as C, C++, and Unix to name a few)? Arun Netravalli.
6. Who is the GM of Hewlett Packard? Rajiv Gupta.
7. Who is the new MTD (Microsoft Testing Director) of Windows 2000, responsible to iron out all initial problems? Sanjay Tejwrika.
8. Who are the Chief Executives of CitiBank, Mckensey & Stanchart? Victor Menezes, Rajat Gupta, and Rana Talwar. Indians are the wealthiest among all ethnic groups in America, even faring better than the Caucasians and natives. There are 3.22 million Indians in USA (1.5% of population). 12% of the scientists in the USA are Indians. 38% of doctors in America are Indian. 36% of NASA scientists are Indians. 34% of Microsoft employees are Indians. 28% of IBM employees are Indians. 17% of INTEL scientists are Indians. 13% of XEROX employees are Indians.
9. Furthermore, the Consul General in New York, Mr. Pramathesh Rath has said that India (as of 2002) is the largest source of international students accounting for more than 11 percent or 67,000 of the over half-million studying in various universities in the U.S. In this case, Indian students for the first time outnumbered the hitherto largest source of international students, which was China.
For the period of 2002-03, Indian students remain number 1 in U.S. university enrollments, totaling 74,603, up from the previous year. This accounts for a good 13% of the 586,323 international students. This means the Indian student population in the U.S. has doubled in the last 7 years. The U.S. authorities also appreciate this since it brings in large sums of money for the U.S. economy. It also allows the Indian talent to contribute to the U.S., as well as brings home to India a work force with cutting edge skills.
10. Indian doctors, numbering more than 35,000, constitute over five percent of all physicians in America.
11. Indians constitute ten percent of all medical students in America.
12. Indians also own nearly 40% of all the small and mid-size hotels in the country.
13. Another point is that three-fourths of all graduates from the prestigious IIT university in India are in the U.S.
14. Let's not forget that it was such spiritual visionaries as Srila A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Vivekananda, and others who first brought notice of the true glories of Indian Vedic philosophy to the American public, and helped change the public's view of spirituality, popularize the vegetarian diet and yoga, and make "Hare Krishna" a household word.
Additional facts were recently published in a German magazine, which deals with
WORLD HISTORY FACTS ABOUT INDIA.
1. India never invaded any country in her last 1000 years of history.
2. India invented the numerical system. Aryabhatta invented 'zero.'
3. The world's first university was established in Takshila in 700 BC. More than 10,500 students from all over the world studied more than 60 subjects. The University of Nalanda built in the 4th century BC was one of the greatest achievements of ancient India in the field of education.
4. According to the Forbes magazine, Sanskrit is the most suitable language for computer software.
5. Ayurveda is the earliest school of medicine known to humans.
6. Although western media portrays modern images of India as poverty stricken and underdeveloped through political corruption, India was once the richest empire on earth.
7. The art of navigation was born in the river Sindh 5000 years ago. The very word "Navigation" is derived from the Sanskrit word NAVGATIH.
8. The value of pi was first calculated by Budhayana, and he explained the concept of what is now known as the Pythagorean Theorem. British scholars have last year (1999) officially published that Budhayan's works date back to the 6th Century, which is long before the European mathematicians.
9. Algebra, trigonometry and calculus came from India. Quadratic equations were by Sridharacharya in the 11th Century; the largest numbers the Greeks and the Romans used were 106 whereas Indians used numbers as big as 1053.
10. According to the Gemological Institute of America, up until 1896, India was the only source of diamonds to the world.
11. USA based IEEE has proved what has been a century-old suspicion amongst academics that the pioneer of wireless communication was Professor Jagdeesh Bose and not Marconi.
12. The earliest reservoir and dam for irrigation was built in Saurashtra.
13. Chess was invented in India.
14. Sushruta is the father of surgery. 2600 years ago he and health scientists of his time conducted surgeries like cesareans, cataract, fractures and urinary stones. Usage of anaesthesia was well known in ancient India.
15. When many cultures in the world were only nomadic forest dwellers over 5000 years ago, Indians established Harappan culture in Sindhu Valley (Indus Valley Civilization).
16. The place value system, the decimal system was developed in India dating back to at least 100 BC.
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-22 04:40 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 04:39 AM
To elaborate on these points:
A similar article to the one above was originally sent into the Indian Express newspaper, June 22, 1999, by Maxwell Pareira, and reproduced in the Annual Research Journal - 2000, by the Institute for Rewriting Indian (and World) History, which follows.
Some may dispute the facts, like, "India never invaded any country in the last 10,000 years of her history." But when many cultures were nomadic forest dwellers over 5,000 years ago, India established the Harappan culture in the Indus Valley. The world's first university, established in Takshila in 700 BC, had 10,500 students from all over the world studying more than 60 subjects. The large university at Nalanda, dating from the 4th century BC, is acknowledged as one of the greatest achievements of ancient India in the field of education. And Sanskrit, through Latin, is accepted as the mother of all European languages. A 1987 report in Forbes magazine said Sanskrit was the most suitable language for computer software.
India contributed to the number system by the numeral 0, innovated by Aryabhatta. Algebra, trigonometry, and calculus originated in India. The quadratic equation was solved by Sridharacharya in the 11th century. The Greeks and Romans contented themselves with rather small numbers, while Hindus (the then inhabitants of the land of Sapta-Sindhu) used units as big as 10 raised to the power of 53 with specific names as early as 5,000 BC, during the Vedic period. Today, the largest unit in use is tera, or 10 to the power of 12.
The solar year was calculated as 365.25875684 days by Bhaskaracharya in the 5th century, hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart. The value of pi was first calculated by Bodhayana, who also discovered the Pythagorean Theorem in the 6th century, long before the European mathematicians. The place value system and the decimal system were developed in India in 100 BC. [Further research has placed the dates mentioned in this paragraph as actually being much earlier for some of these inventions, as explained in Proof of Vedic Culture's Global Existence.]
Ayurveda is the oldest school of medicine codified by Charaka 2,500 years ago. Sushruta, the father of surgery, conducted complicated procedures dealing with cataracts, artificial limbs, fractures, urinary stones, plastic surgery, caesarean section and brain surgery 2,600 years ago. Over 125 surgical instruments were in use. The use of anesthesia was also known in ancient India.
A century-old suspicion that the pioneer of wireless communication was Prof. Jagadish Bose and not Marconi now stands proven. And Nature has reported that a Danish physicist and his team in the US have slowed down light from the speed of 300,000 km per second to 71 km per hour, using the Bose Einstein Condensate to stall it in its path. And the forensic use of fingerprints was discovered and developed in Calcutta.
The art of navigation was born in the river Sindh 6,000 years ago. The very word "navigation" is derived from the Sanskrit naugatih. Although modern images of India show poverty and underdevelopment, it was the richest country on earth until the arrival of the British. Christopher Columbus was attracted by India's wealth. According to the Gemological Institute of America, until 1896 India was the world's only source of diamonds. Furthermore, the earliest dam for irrigation was built in Saurashta. According to the Saka King Rudradaman I, a beautiful lake called Sudarshana was constructed on the hills of Raivataka in Chandragupta Maurya's time.
In regard to games, there is no doubt that the game of chess is an Indian invention in the form of Shatranj or Astha Pada. Polo originated in Manipur. The first man on Everest was Tenzing Norgay, not Sir Edmond Hillary.
Some additional facts about India are the following:
1. The number of companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, at more than 6,000, is second only to NYSE.
2. Four out of 10 Silicon Valley startups are run by Indians.
3. With 800 movies per year, India's film industry overshadows Hollywood.
4. The organized lottery market in India is US$7bn (2% of GDP).
5. India consumes a fifth of the world's gold output.
6. Indians account for 45% of H1-B visas issued by the US every year.
7. Growing at 6%, in 25 years Indian GDP on a PPP basis will be at the same level the US is at today.
8. Six Indian ladies have won Miss Universe/Miss World titles over the past 10 years. No other country has won more than twice.
11. Bank deposits in India roughly equal 50% of its GDP OE again, among the highest in the world.
12. Indian Railways is the largest railway network in the world under single management.
13. India has the third-largest army in the world, nearly 1.5 million strong.
14. India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world, accounting for more than 30% of global production and 25% of consumption.
15. India is the world's premier centre for diamond cutting and polishing. Nine out of every 10 stones sold in the world pass through India.
16. India has the highest number of annual bulk drugs filings (77) with USFDA.
17. India is home to the largest number of pharmaceutical plants (61) approved by USFDA outside the US.
18. India's Hero Honda is the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer, with 2002 production of 1.7m units.
19. Other than US and Japan, India is the only country to have built a super computer indigenously.
20. Indian Railways is the largest employer in the world, with a staff of 1.6 million people.
21. It is the second-largest cement-producing country in the world, producing more than 110m tonnes.
22. Of the Fortune 500 companies, 220 outsource their software-related work to India.
23. There are 8,500 Indian restaurants in the UK, 15% of the country's total dining-out establishments.
24. India is the largest democracy in the world, with nearly 400m voting in the last national elections.
25. India has the second-largest pool of scientists and engineers in the world.
26. India has the third-largest investor base in the world.
27. According to the Gemological Institute of America, up until 1896, India was the only source of diamonds.
28. The Kumbh Mela festival, held every 12 years in the city of Allahabad, attracts 25 million people OE more than the population of 185 of the 227 countries in the world. In fact, in 2001, it attracted 27 million people on the main holy days in January, and 71 million over the course of the 6 weeks of the whole festival.
29. The Indian city of Varanasi, also known as Benares, is the oldest, continuously inhabited city in the world today.
30. There are 3.22 million Indians in the US.
31. Indians are the richest immigrant class in the US, with nearly 200,000 millionaires. From a sample of 2004 US Census based surveys, Asians are the highest earning subgroup with a median income of $57,518 compared to the national average of $44,389.
32. India is ranked the sixth country in the world in terms of satellite launches.
33. There are over 70,000 bank branches in India - among the highest in the world.
34. The State bank of India is the world¡¯s largest Bank in terms of branches.
Additional and Interesting Quotes About India.
We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made. Albert Einstein.
India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend and the great grand mother of tradition. Mark Twain.
If there is one place on the face of the earth where all dreams of living men have found a home from the very earliest days when man began the dream of existence, it is India. French scholar Romain Rolland.
India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border. Hu Shih. (Former Chinese ambassador to USA)
ALL OF THE ABOVE IS JUST THE TIP OF THE ICEBERG, THE LIST COULD BE ENDLESS. BUT, if we don't see even a glimpse of that great India in the India that we see today, it clearly means that we are not working up to our potential; and that if we do, we could once again see India as an ever shining and inspiring country setting a bright path for rest of the world to follow.
With all this evidence anyone can see the potential India and her people have exhibited in the past, only to have had it stifled and squashed by its conquerors over the centuries. Nonetheless, it could again become a global influence if allowed to do so, which is something that is again gradually happening after a long struggle toward freedom.
[Much more information of this kind is presented in Stephen Knapp's book "Proof of Vedic Culture's Global Existence."]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 05:09 AM
To elaborate on these points:
A similar article to the one above was originally sent into the Indian Express newspaper, June 22, 1999, by Maxwell Pareira, and reproduced in the Annual Research Journal - 2000, by the Institute for Rewriting Indian (and World) History, which follows.
Some may dispute the facts, like, "India never invaded any country in the last 10,000 years of her history." But when many cultures were nomadic forest dwellers over 5,000 years ago, India established the Harappan culture in the Indus Valley. The world's first university, established in Takshila in 700 BC, had 10,500 students from all over the world studying more than 60 subjects. The large university at Nalanda, dating from the 4th century BC, is acknowledged as one of the greatest achievements of ancient India in the field of education. And Sanskrit, through Latin, is accepted as the mother of all European languages. A 1987 report in Forbes magazine said Sanskrit was the most suitable language for computer software.
India contributed to the number system by the numeral 0, innovated by Aryabhatta. Algebra, trigonometry, and calculus originated in India. The quadratic equation was solved by Sridharacharya in the 11th century. The Greeks and Romans contented themselves with rather small numbers, while Hindus (the then inhabitants of the land of Sapta-Sindhu) used units as big as 10 raised to the power of 53 with specific names as early as 5,000 BC, during the Vedic period. Today, the largest unit in use is tera, or 10 to the power of 12.
The solar year was calculated as 365.25875684 days by Bhaskaracharya in the 5th century, hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart. The value of pi was first calculated by Bodhayana, who also discovered the Pythagorean Theorem in the 6th century, long before the European mathematicians. The place value system and the decimal system were developed in India in 100 BC. [Further research has placed the dates mentioned in this paragraph as actually being much earlier for some of these inventions, as explained in Proof of Vedic Culture's Global Existence.]
Ayurveda is the oldest school of medicine codified by Charaka 2,500 years ago. Sushruta, the father of surgery, conducted complicated procedures dealing with cataracts, artificial limbs, fractures, urinary stones, plastic surgery, caesarean section and brain surgery 2,600 years ago. Over 125 surgical instruments were in use. The use of anesthesia was also known in ancient India.
A century-old suspicion that the pioneer of wireless communication was Prof. Jagadish Bose and not Marconi now stands proven. And Nature has reported that a Danish physicist and his team in the US have slowed down light from the speed of 300,000 km per second to 71 km per hour, using the Bose Einstein Condensate to stall it in its path. And the forensic use of fingerprints was discovered and developed in Calcutta.
The art of navigation was born in the river Sindh 6,000 years ago. The very word "navigation" is derived from the Sanskrit naugatih. Although modern images of India show poverty and underdevelopment, it was the richest country on earth until the arrival of the British. Christopher Columbus was attracted by India's wealth. According to the Gemological Institute of America, until 1896 India was the world's only source of diamonds. Furthermore, the earliest dam for irrigation was built in Saurashta. According to the Saka King Rudradaman I, a beautiful lake called Sudarshana was constructed on the hills of Raivataka in Chandragupta Maurya's time.
In regard to games, there is no doubt that the game of chess is an Indian invention in the form of Shatranj or Astha Pada. Polo originated in Manipur. The first man on Everest was Tenzing Norgay, not Sir Edmond Hillary.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 05:10 AM
ome additional facts about India are the following:
1. The number of companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, at more than 6,000, is second only to NYSE.
2. Four out of 10 Silicon Valley startups are run by Indians.
3. With 800 movies per year, India's film industry overshadows Hollywood.
4. The organized lottery market in India is US$7bn (2% of GDP).
5. India consumes a fifth of the world's gold output.
6. Indians account for 45% of H1-B visas issued by the US every year.
7. Growing at 6%, in 25 years Indian GDP on a PPP basis will be at the same level the US is at today.
8. Six Indian ladies have won Miss Universe/Miss World titles over the past 10 years. No other country has won more than twice.
11. Bank deposits in India roughly equal 50% of its GDP OE again, among the highest in the world.
12. Indian Railways is the largest railway network in the world under single management.
13. India has the third-largest army in the world, nearly 1.5 million strong.
14. India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world, accounting for more than 30% of global production and 25% of consumption.
15. India is the world's premier centre for diamond cutting and polishing. Nine out of every 10 stones sold in the world pass through India.
16. India has the highest number of annual bulk drugs filings (77) with USFDA.
17. India is home to the largest number of pharmaceutical plants (61) approved by USFDA outside the US.
18. India's Hero Honda is the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer, with 2002 production of 1.7m units.
19. Other than US and Japan, India is the only country to have built a super computer indigenously.
20. Indian Railways is the largest employer in the world, with a staff of 1.6 million people.
21. It is the second-largest cement-producing country in the world, producing more than 110m tonnes.
22. Of the Fortune 500 companies, 220 outsource their software-related work to India.
23. There are 8,500 Indian restaurants in the UK, 15% of the country's total dining-out establishments.
24. India is the largest democracy in the world, with nearly 400m voting in the last national elections.
25. India has the second-largest pool of scientists and engineers in the world.
26. India has the third-largest investor base in the world.
27. According to the Gemological Institute of America, up until 1896, India was the only source of diamonds.
28. The Kumbh Mela festival, held every 12 years in the city of Allahabad, attracts 25 million people OE more than the population of 185 of the 227 countries in the world. In fact, in 2001, it attracted 27 million people on the main holy days in January, and 71 million over the course of the 6 weeks of the whole festival.
29. The Indian city of Varanasi, also known as Benares, is the oldest, continuously inhabited city in the world today.
30. There are 3.22 million Indians in the US.
31. Indians are the richest immigrant class in the US, with nearly 200,000 millionaires. From a sample of 2004 US Census based surveys, Asians are the highest earning subgroup with a median income of $57,518 compared to the national average of $44,389.
32. India is ranked the sixth country in the world in terms of satellite launches.
33. There are over 70,000 bank branches in India - among the highest in the world.
34. The State bank of India is the world¡¯s largest Bank in terms of branches.
Additional and Interesting Quotes About India.
We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made. Albert Einstein.
India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend and the great grand mother of tradition. Mark Twain.
If there is one place on the face of the earth where all dreams of living men have found a home from the very earliest days when man began the dream of existence, it is India. French scholar Romain Rolland.
India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border. Hu Shih. (Former Chinese ambassador to USA)
ALL OF THE ABOVE IS JUST THE TIP OF THE ICEBERG, THE LIST COULD BE ENDLESS. BUT, if we don't see even a glimpse of that great India in the India that we see today, it clearly means that we are not working up to our potential; and that if we do, we could once again see India as an ever shining and inspiring country setting a bright path for rest of the world to follow.
With all this evidence anyone can see the potential India and her people have exhibited in the past, only to have had it stifled and squashed by its conquerors over the centuries. Nonetheless, it could again become a global influence if allowed to do so, which is something that is again gradually happening after a long struggle toward freedom.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 05:12 AM
Some additional facts about India are the following:
1. The number of companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, at more than 6,000, is second only to NYSE.
2. Four out of 10 Silicon Valley startups are run by Indians.
3. With 800 movies per year, India's film industry overshadows Hollywood.
4. The organized lottery market in India is US$7bn (2% of GDP).
5. India consumes a fifth of the world's gold output.
6. Indians account for 45% of H1-B visas issued by the US every year.
7. Growing at 6%, in 25 years Indian GDP on a PPP basis will be at the same level the US is at today.
8. Six Indian ladies have won Miss Universe/Miss World titles over the past 10 years. No other country has won more than twice.
11. Bank deposits in India roughly equal 50% of its GDP OE again, among the highest in the world.
12. Indian Railways is the largest railway network in the world under single management.
13. India has the third-largest army in the world, nearly 1.5 million strong.
14. India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world, accounting for more than 30% of global production and 25% of consumption.
15. India is the world's premier centre for diamond cutting and polishing. Nine out of every 10 stones sold in the world pass through India.
16. India has the highest number of annual bulk drugs filings (77) with USFDA.
17. India is home to the largest number of pharmaceutical plants (61) approved by USFDA outside the US.
18. India's Hero Honda is the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer, with 2002 production of 1.7m units.
19. Other than US and Japan, India is the only country to have built a super computer indigenously.
20. Indian Railways is the largest employer in the world, with a staff of 1.6 million people.
21. It is the second-largest cement-producing country in the world, producing more than 110m tonnes.
22. Of the Fortune 500 companies, 220 outsource their software-related work to India.
23. There are 8,500 Indian restaurants in the UK, 15% of the country's total dining-out establishments.
24. India is the largest democracy in the world, with nearly 400m voting in the last national elections.
25. India has the second-largest pool of scientists and engineers in the world.
26. India has the third-largest investor base in the world.
27. According to the Gemological Institute of America, up until 1896, India was the only source of diamonds.
28. The Kumbh Mela festival, held every 12 years in the city of Allahabad, attracts 25 million people OE more than the population of 185 of the 227 countries in the world. In fact, in 2001, it attracted 27 million people on the main holy days in January, and 71 million over the course of the 6 weeks of the whole festival.
29. The Indian city of Varanasi, also known as Benares, is the oldest, continuously inhabited city in the world today.
30. There are 3.22 million Indians in the US.
31. Indians are the richest immigrant class in the US, with nearly 200,000 millionaires. From a sample of 2004 US Census based surveys, Asians are the highest earning subgroup with a median income of $57,518 compared to the national average of $44,389.
32. India is ranked the sixth country in the world in terms of satellite launches.
33. There are over 70,000 bank branches in India - among the highest in the world.
34. The State bank of India is the world¡¯s largest Bank in terms of branches.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 05:19 AM
America¡¯s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs
http://memp.pratt.duke.edu/downl ... t_entrepreneurs.pdf
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 07:24 AM
Kalam asks BrahMos team to develop ''Mark-II'' version
Jun. 21, 2007
President A P J Abdul Kalam today asked BrahMos team to work on developing "Mark-II" version of BrahMos hypersonic cruise missile system and also reusable class of cruise missiles. "Time has come for BrahMos Aerospace to work on Mark-II version of BRAHMOS so that you will still be the market leader in hypersonic cruise missiles," Kalam said while commencing the delivery of BrahMos missile system to the Army here. Observing that fast deployment of hypersonic missile systems will be necessary to maintain India's force level supremacy, he said "I visualize long range hypersonic cruise missiles not only delivering pay loads but also returning to the base after the mission, leading to re-usable class of cruise missiles within the next decade". He said it was time that the three services work with the team of BrahMos Aerospace to evolve such a system in a time bound manner. The President also asked the BrahMos joint venture firm between India and Russia to aggressively market "world class" product which will have a market shelf life of not more than five years. "What is market shelf life? Naturally, there will be competitors who would be developing contemporary products which will be detrimental to the market leadership. "No smart developer can afford to lose the competitive edge which he has generated and hence increasing the orders and continuously improving the products have to be aggressively pursued," he said.
http://www.indiadaily.com/breaking_news/90704.asp
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 07:32 AM
BrahMos supersonic cruise missile, jointly developed by India and Russia a remarkable success
Media Release
Apr. 22, 2007
The BrahMos supersonic cruise missile, jointly developed by India and Russia, was successfully test-fired from the interim test range (ITR) at Chandipur near here today.
Terming the test a "100 per cent success", top missile scientist A Sivathanu Pillai, who heads the BrahMos project, told PTI on phone: "It was a very good flight, an excellent one. The high reliability and new operational capabilities of the missile were established during the flight."
The launch established the missile's precision, long-range manoeuvres and high level of operational features required by the army in the theatre of war, said Pillai, the CEO of BrahMos Aerospace Private Ltd.
BrahMos, which has a range of 290 km, blasted off in the presence of Pillai, some 30 Russian scientists and experts from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) from the ITR, about 15 km from here, at 11.21 am.
This was the 14th launch of the missile. The last test was conducted at the ITR on February 4.
http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/16523.asp
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-22 04:30 PM
Army to induct BrahMos ahead of schedule
With all the four test firings going without blemish, Army is planning to induct the BrahMos supersonic land attack cruise missile months ahead of schedule. The first missile sub-group to be equipped with BrahMos has already become operational and in the first order, Army will get 12 launchers comprising four mobile autonomous launchers, according to DRDO sources here. Army is planning to induct the BrahMos, which will be heralded by President A P J Abdul Kalam, during the middle of the year. The proposed early induction of the supersonic cruise missile will come even as American satellite images showed that Pakistan was in the process of deploying its next generation Shaheen II missiles which have the range to hit any part of India.
Brahmos chief executive A Sivathanu Pillai termed it as a missile with no equivalent in the world and said all its four tests -- two in Pokhran and two at the interim test range at Chandipur -- validated all the technical parameters. The missile has a range of 290 kms. "It is ready for induction and upgrades can be carried out even after its becomes operational with the Army," he said. Army had signed an agreement in March 2006 which stipulated that the land version of the missile would be delivered to it by the middle of next year. In the last two tests, Army personnel fired the missile independent of scientists from their own complex, sources said. The land attack version of the BrahMos uses thermal sensors which gives the missile a capability to be ready for firing within two minutes, unlike, the existing short-range surface-to-surface Prithvi missile that require a 20-minute preparation time. When the first sub-group becomes operational, it will give the Army the punch to fire 12 missiles at 12 different targets simultaneously within 30 seconds. During tests, DRDO sources said the land attack cruise missile (LACM) had demonstrated zero circular error probability, marking it a weapon of almost pinpoint precision. According to DRDO officials, efforts are on to imbibe the scramjet technology into the missile to increase its speed to almost Mach eight, which is eight times the speed of sound. With the induction of the BrahMos missile, Army will now be equipped with four types of missiles ranging from LACM, short range Prithvi, 700 km range Agni to medium range 2,000 km Agni II missile, leading to the possibility of the Army going in for a separate missile division.
http://www.indiafirstfoundation.org/NEWS_M/S&T_M.HTM
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-23 05:23 AM
Indian Brains behind Intel Tera Chip
http://www.techtree.com/techtree/jsp/article.jsp?article_id=79344&cat_id=581
Just recently, Intel developed a 'Tera Research Chip' to deliver supercomputer-like performance while consuming less electricity. And, it was a team of Indian engineers at the Intel India Development Center (IIDC) in Bangalore that played a key role in the development of this fingernail-sized chip. The team comprises 20 members, and was led by Vasantha Erraguntla, an Intel veteran, who contributed almost half of the work that went into the chip in terms of logic, circuit and physical design, while the rest was done at the company's other lab located at Oregon. Talking about the achievement, Erraguntla said it feels great to lead and be part of a team that is contributing to Intel's global innovation and to the future of technology. The capabilities of Indian engineering talent have been established without a doubt. The 80-core chip is the result of Intel's "Tera-scale computing" research aimed at delivering Teraflops (trillions of calculations per second) performance for future PCs and servers. It is the world's first programmable processor from a single, 80-core chip, using only 62 watts of electricity, less than many single-core processors today. IIDC was set up in 1998, and is Intel's largest non-manufacturing site outside of the US. Reportedly, Indian engineers at IIDC work on the design of chips and chip sets, reference designs, system software and packaging technologies, and have full ownership of the development of key Intel chips for the server and mobile market.
Courtesy: www.techtree.com, February 23, 2007
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-23 05:26 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-23 05:35 AM
Indian American claims solving Einstein`s twin paradox
Houston, Feb 18: An Indian American professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Louisiana State University has claimed to have solved Einstein's twin paradox, known as one of the most enduring puzzles of modern-day Physics.
First suggested by Albert Einstein more than 100 years ago, the paradox deals with the effects of time in the context of travel at near the speed of light.
Einstein originally used the example of two clocks - one motionless, one in transit. The paradox has been described using the analogy of twins: if one twin is placed on a spacecraft travelling near the speed of light while the other twin remains earthbound, the unmoved twin would have aged dramatically compared with his interstellar sibling.
"I solved the paradox by incorporating a new principle within the relativity framework that defines motion not in relation to individual objects, such as the two twins with respect to each other, but in relation to distant stars," said the scientist Subhask Kak.
In his work, he uses probabilistic relationships to assume that general properties of the universe do not vary by location. His formula completes attempts by others, as well as Einstein himself.
Professor Kak, who hails from Jammu and Kashmir, is currently Delaune distinguished professor of Electrical Engineering and professor in the Asian Studies and Cognitive Science programs at LSU, Baton Rouge.
Kak said the implications of his resolution will be widespread, generally enhancing the scientific community`s comprehension of relativity and possibly impacting quantum communications.
The fact that time slows down on moving objects has been documented and verified over the years through repeated experimentation. But, in the previous scenario, the paradox is that the earthbound twin is the one who would be considered to be in motion - in relation to the sibling - and therefore should be the one aging more slowly.
Einstein and other scientists have attempted to resolve this problem before, but none of the formulas they presented proved satisfactory.
Kak's findings were published online in the international journal of theoretical physics, and will appear in the upcoming print version of the publication.
The implications of this resolution will be widespread, generally enhancing the scientific community's comprehension of relativity. It may eventually even have some impact on quantum communications and computers, potentially making it possible to design more efficient and reliable communication systems for space applications.
Kak, a scientist, philosopher and scholar of India, has also transformed the understanding of the nature of Indian civilization and is one of the prominent figures of the contemporary Indian renaissance.
He completed his Ph.D. At the IIT, Delhi in 1970. Earlier he taught at IIT, Delhi, Imperial College London, Bell Laboratories and also at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.
He is also the originator of the first test of algorithmic randomness, and of instantaneously trained neural networks (inns) - also called Kak neural networks. He was amongst the first to apply information metrics to quantum systems.
http://www.zeenews.com/articles.asp?aid=355074&archisec=ENV&archisubsec=27
Technical:
http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/physics/pdf/0605/0605199v2.pdf
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-23 05:41 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-29 03:35 AM
Origins of civilization-INDIA-the empire of spirit
6 Parts:
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6427037534224149376
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-6-29 03:57 AM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-29 05:00 AM
Lost treasures of the ancient world - INDIA
5 Parts:
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4844642682545944982
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-29 07:54 AM
The Lost temple of INDIA -
6 parts
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4844642682545944982
Author: changabula Time: 2007-6-29 08:54 AM
The Brahmos Supersonic Cruise Missile
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1917224594129749100
Author: changabula Time: 2007-7-14 09:36 PM
eInfochips launches new surveillance camera
Business Standard: April 19, 2007
Mumbai/Ahmedabad: eInfochips, an Ahmedabad-based chip and product design services company, today launched what it claims to be world¡¯s most advanced intelligent IP surveillance camera, IPNetCam.
The chip company has prepared a surveillance camera reference design based on Texas Instruments¡¯ DaVinci technology and Object Video OnBoard analytics.
According to Tapan Joshi, vice president-marketing, the global video surveillance IP camera market was around $4.9 billion in 2006 and is expected to grow to $9 billion by 2011.
¡°What we offer here is the most advanced surveillance camera which sets new standards in network-supported security and video-surveillance technology. In contrast to CCTV cameras or digital cameras, IPNetCam provides robust video content analysis that allows rule-based object detection, classification, tracking and real-time alerting,¡± said Joshi.
With applications in homeland, transportation, retail, banking and critical infrastructure sectors, IPNetCam is claimed to detect object and send e-mail alerts to the server on its own. The camera reference design will be offered to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to build a range of intelligent IP surveillance cameras.
¡°The camera is priced at $ 4995 and will be offered on license-basis to camera manufacturers like Sony, who are our customers. While the bill of material comes to less than a dollar, the production cost can only be arrived at after we begin receiving orders for licensing,¡± said Joshi, adding that camera manufacturers from North America, UK, Japan and Taiwan have been approaching the company for IPNetCam.
Joshi informed that though there are no competitors for the company in this segment, Bangalore-based ITTIAM manufactures similar reference designs for video conferencing only.
¡°We are the first to offer reference designs for surveillance cameras,¡± he said.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-7-14 09:38 PM
eInfochips launches new surveillance camera
Business Standard: April 19, 2007
Mumbai/Ahmedabad: eInfochips, an Ahmedabad-based chip and product design services company, today launched what it claims to be world¡¯s most advanced intelligent IP surveillance camera, IPNetCam.
The chip company has prepared a surveillance camera reference design based on Texas Instruments¡¯ DaVinci technology and Object Video OnBoard analytics.
According to Tapan Joshi, vice president-marketing, the global video surveillance IP camera market was around $4.9 billion in 2006 and is expected to grow to $9 billion by 2011.
¡°What we offer here is the most advanced surveillance camera which sets new standards in network-supported security and video-surveillance technology. In contrast to CCTV cameras or digital cameras, IPNetCam provides robust video content analysis that allows rule-based object detection, classification, tracking and real-time alerting,¡± said Joshi.
With applications in homeland, transportation, retail, banking and critical infrastructure sectors, IPNetCam is claimed to detect object and send e-mail alerts to the server on its own. The camera reference design will be offered to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to build a range of intelligent IP surveillance cameras.
¡°The camera is priced at $ 4995 and will be offered on license-basis to camera manufacturers like Sony, who are our customers. While the bill of material comes to less than a dollar, the production cost can only be arrived at after we begin receiving orders for licensing,¡± said Joshi, adding that camera manufacturers from North America, UK, Japan and Taiwan have been approaching the company for IPNetCam.
Joshi informed that though there are no competitors for the company in this segment, Bangalore-based ITTIAM manufactures similar reference designs for video conferencing only.
¡°We are the first to offer reference designs for surveillance cameras,¡± he said.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-8-15 07:38 PM
Indian scholars predated Newton find by 250 yrs
15 Aug 2007, 0015 hrs IST,PTI
SMS NEWS to 8888 for latest updates
LONDON: A little-known school of scholars in south India discovered one of the founding principles of modern mathematics hundreds of years before Sir Isaac Newton, to whom the finding is currently attributed, according to new research here.
Dr George Gheverghese Joseph from The University of Manchester says the Kerala School identified the 'infinite series¡¯ - one of the basic components of calculus - in about 1350.
The discovery is currently attributed in books to Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibnitz at the end of the 17th centuries, the University of Manchester reported in its website on Monday.
The team from the Universities of Manchester and Exeter reveal the Kerala School also discovered what amounted to the Pi series and used it to calculate Pi correct to 9, 10 and later 17 decimal places.
And there is strong circumstantial evidence that the Indians passed on their discoveries to mathematically knowledgeable Jesuit missionaries who visited India during the 15th century.
That knowledge, the researchers argue, may have eventually been passed on to Newton himself.
The research was carried out by Dr George Gheverghese Joseph, Honourary Reader, School of Education at The University of Manchester and Dennis Almeida, Teaching Fellow at the School of Education, The University of Exeter.
Joseph made the revelations while trawling through obscure Indian papers for a yet to be published third edition of his best selling book The Crest of the Peacock: the Non-European Roots of Mathematics , the report said.
"The beginnings of modern maths is usually seen as a European achievement but the discoveries in medieval India between the 14th and 16th centuries have been ignored or forgotten," Joseph said.
"The brilliance of Newton¡¯s work at the end of the 17th century stands undiminished - especially when it came to the algorithms of calculus.
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2281855,prtpage-1.cms
[ Last edited by changabula at 2007-8-15 07:39 PM ]
Author: changabula Time: 2007-8-15 07:41 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by changabula at 2007-8-15 19:38
[And there is strong circumstantial evidence that the Indians passed on their discoveries to mathematically knowledgeable Jesuit missionaries who visited India during the 15th century.
That knowledge, the researchers argue, may have eventually been passed on to Newton himself.
Once more another theft uncovered.
I wonder how many more so-called European inventions and discoveries have been stolen when they stole India, China and the other lands!
Author: changabula Time: 2007-8-28 10:20 PM
Did You Know ?
Neem, turmeric, jamun and cow's urine, traditionally used for medicinal purposes in India, have been patented in the United States.
The United States adopted ancient Indian catamaran-making technology to construct fast ships which were used with dramatic effect in the Iraq war. Among the equipment the Americans used to win the Iraq war were 100-feet catamaran ships to ferry tanks and ammunition from Qatar to Kuwait. The ships, built with technology adapted from ancient Tamil methods to make catamarans, can travel over 2,500 kms in less than 48 hours, twice the speed of the regular cargo ships, and carry enough equipment to support about 5,000 soldiers. Having a shallow draft, the boats can unload in rudimentary ports, allowing troops to land closer to the fight.
In 1895, eight years before the Wright brothers flew their first plane, Shivkar Bapuji Talpade and his wife gave a thrilling demonstration flight on the Chowpatty beach in Mumbai. Mr. Talpade, an erudite Sanskrit scholar, constructed his aeroplane named 'Marutsakha' based on the description of Vimanas available in the Vedas.
The theory of the Ion Engine has been credited to Robert Goddard, long recognized as the father of Liquid-fuel Rocketry. It is claimed that in 1906, long before Goddard launched his first modern rocket, his imagination had conceived the idea of an Ion rocket. However, Shivkar Bapuji Talpade used an Ion Engine to take his plane to a height of 1500 ft. in 1895, many years before Goddard.
USA based IEEE has proved what has been a century old suspicion in the world scientific community that the pioneer of wireless communication was Prof. Jagdeesh Bose and not Marconi.
http://www.indpride.com/didyouknow.html
Author: changabula Time: 2007-8-29 11:50 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by changabula at 2007-8-28 22:20
Did You Know ?
Neem, turmeric, jamun and cow's urine, traditionally used for medicinal purposes in India, have been patented in the United States.
The United States adop ...
Again we see the white man stealing the natives inventions and calling it their own.
Author: changcheng Time: 2007-9-22 10:20 AM
QUOTE:
Again we see the white man stealing the natives inventions and calling it their own.
My friend, not just "calling it their own" but asking the natives to pay the white man for using them - and also demanding back payments for having used this "white man's property" in the past and having caused great loss to the white man.
They are now busy patenting Yoga, yogic postures, words used in Yoga. Indians will have to pay the white man in order to use Indian words. The original philosophy behind many of these things was that they be freely available to all mankind.
By the way, great thread on Indian contributions, Changabula.
Author: interesting Time: 2007-9-22 12:35 PM
Yeah, Chang, that stuff about vimanas is standard New Age fare. Depending on who is spinning the task, ancient India also powered them with gasoline and repelled Alexander with laser weapons....
It's right up there with the Tesla death ray business.
Author: seneca Time: 2007-10-5 09:12 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by changcheng at 2007-9-22 10:20
\Changabula...great thread... ...
If it is such a 'great' thread (like the phoney "Chiense inventions..." thread?"), why not let an INDIAN write it?
Is it perhaps because Chang stole it from Master Kung in Taiwan?
Author: devilfire Time: 2007-10-18 08:37 PM
just pass
Author: petera Time: 2007-11-16 02:16 PM
I have just discovered this thread.Another brilliant contribution by Changabula.I will peruse it in the weeks
to come,hopefully,skipping over the rubbish posted by shills like "Interesting" and a couple of others.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-11-16 11:19 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by petera at 2007-11-16 14:16
I have just discovered this thread.Another brilliant contribution by Changabula.I will peruse it in the weeks
to come,hopefully,skipping over the rubbish posted by shills like "Interesting&qu ...
Thank you my friend.
I need encouragement to continue.
Author: rockbaby Time: 2007-12-3 12:30 PM
Wonderful job! Changabula. It¡¯s interesting and worth reading carefully. I will come to read some of them as a respite whenever I feel tired or weary with my job! 
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:17 AM
India ¨C Once Plentiful: Records reveal British schemes diminshed crops and dismantled a native system of abundance
(Reposted by permission from Hinduism Today, May, 1997.)
Most of us college-educated Indians were taught that inefficient technologies and low productivities pervaded through long ages in practically all parts of India," states Dr. S.K. Bajaj, director of the Centre for Policy Studies, a Chennai think tank. In the 1920s Gandhi's Young
India presented some proof of a rich and prosperous pre-British India. Then in the 1960s, the Centre's founder, historian Sri Dharampal, discovered at the Thanjavur Tamil University a set of palmleaf records documenting a British survey of 2,000 villages of Chengalpattu, a large area surrounding present-day Chennai. "Startling features of Tamil society in the 18th century emerge from these palm leaf accounts," said Bajaj. "Between 1762 and 1766 there were villages which produced up to 12 tons of paddy a hectare. This level of productivity can be obtained only in the best of the Green Revolution areas of the country, with the most advanced, expensive and often
environmentally ruinous technologies. The annual availability of all food averaged five tons per household; the national average in India today is three-quarters ton. Whatever the ways of pre-British Indian society, they were definitely neither ineffective nor inefficient."
Food production is just one aspect of the colonial impact being addressed by the Centre. The Chengalpattu records are part of Dharampal's research which has uncovered a politically, technologically and economically vibrant Indian society of the 18th century. "That society was dismantled and atomized by the British, by force," states the Centre's brochure, "and the diverse skills of the Indian people were pushed out of the public sphere and made to rust and decay. For India to become a vibrant and dynamic nation again, we only need to re-awaken the political, economic and technological skills of our people." The records are especially useful for understanding how Hindu religious institutions were originally supported, and why they declined under British rule.
Dharampal believes Indians must rediscover their nation's traditional sense of chitta, mind, and flow of time, kala. "Since we have lost practically all contact with our tradition, and all comprehension of our chitta and kala, there are no standards and norms on the basis of which to answer questions that arise in ordinary social living. Ordinary Indians perhaps still retain an innate understanding of right action and right thought, but our elite society seems to have lost all touch with any stable norms of behavior and thinking. The present attempt at imitating the world and following every passing fad can hardly lead us anywhere. We shall have no options until we evolve a conceptual framework of our own, based on chitta and kala, to discriminate between right and wrong, what is useful for us and what is futile."
The Centre's three main researchers are: M.D. Srinivas, a theoretical physicist teaching at the University of Madras, who specializes in Indian science; T.M. Mukundan, a mechanical engineer specializing in technologies such as water management and iron smelting; and J.K. Bajaj, also a theoretical physicist, now involved in economy, agriculture and energy.
The Chengalpattu data was a Godsend for the Centre, and has allowed them to support many of their central theories about pre-British India. The accounts detail a complete economic, social, administrative and religious picture of the society. Every temple, pond, garden and grove in a locality is listed, the occupation, family size, home and lot size of 62,500 households meticulously recorded. Crop yields between 1762-66 are tallied. Per capita production of food in this region (which is of average fertility) was more than five times that achieved on average today.
Bajaj and his associates didn't do all their work in a library. The team set off in person across the Chengalpattu region to verify the picture presented in the leafs. They found most of these villages deserted--perhaps since the beginning of the 19th century--by all who had any resources, education or skills. Inhabitants had left behind their palatial houses, their temples and groves. Abandoned as well were the eyrs--the irrigation tanks and channels--often cut across by British-built roads which left dry land on one side and stagnant water on the other. Their on-the-ground inspection confirmed many aspects of the inscribed leaves.
Of importance to Hindu history is how the religious institutions were maintained. Lands called manyam were assigned for the support of various functions, including religious activities. Certain percentages of the production from this land were divided among the various public functions, such as administration, army, education and religious institutions. Small temples received income from nearby villages. Larger ones, such as those of the great center of Kanchipuram, received income from over a thousand villages. The amount dedicated to religion from the manyam lands, according to the leaves, was a substantial four percent of the total produce of the region. It supported temples, academies of learning, dancers and musicians. A portion was also provided for Muslim and Jain institutions. This system resulted in the vast network of temples, most now neglected, seen across South India.
The British government changed this system. In some areas they calculated a percentage figure of total tax revenue going to the institutions and fixed it as a dollar amount, in 1799 dollars. Some institutions still receive this same government allotment--worth next to nothing today. Others became owners of the land from which a share of production once came. This introduced its own set of problems, also still with us today, where temples are unable to collect the rent. The collective result was that the great religious and cultural institutions of the 18th century decayed and lost touch with the community. The British taxes were so high there was no money left to support the administration or cultural establishments. School teachers, musicians, dancers, and keepers of the irrigation works, moved away, or took to farming. By 1871, 80% of the area was engaged in agriculture (up from less than 50% earlier), and many of the services and industrial activities that dominated the Chengalpattu society of the 1770s ceased to exist. The value of the Centre's research is obvious: India, and Hinduism with it, flourished in the not-so-distant past--without the Green Revolution or the Industrial Revolution or the Worker's Revolution. Dharampal, Bajaj and their associates want India to look back at this time, dissect and understand it, and use that indigenous knowledge to reinvigorate the world's largest democracy.
How the Green Revolution failed
Dr. Ramon De La Peña of the University of Hawaii is one of the world's foremost experts on rice. He also happens to be a neighbor of the ashram from which Hinduism Today is produced. Asked to comment on the Chengalpattu reports, he said: "Such yields as 12 tons per hectare were definitely possible with the old methods and two crops a year. The best modern US production is eight to nine tons per hectare (one annual crop). The world average is presently three to five tons/hectare. Before the Green Revolution [which introduced new, high-yielding strains] the average was one to one-and-a-half tons/hectare. The Green Revolution worked in some areas but
not in others. The short variety of rice developed for it grew just one meter high. To be productive, it needed fertilizer, and the fields had to be kept weed free. The old varieties were two meters high, not so suspectible to weed competition, resistant to insects and did not need fertilizer. If the new varieties are not managed correctly--with fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides--the harvest is less than with the old methods of minimum input. New is not always better."
Dharma's Foundation
Dr. J.K. Bajaj lauds duty to create and share abundance
All reliable statistics indicate that the average availability and consumption of food in our country is among the lowest in the world. We on the average eat at least one-third less of staple foods than the norm in almost every other part of the world. And India is perhaps the only major country of the world where cattle do not share in the produce of the lands. The Indian people and cattle are living in a state of hunger while highly fertile Indian lands, even those that fall in the plains of the great life-giving rivers, such as the Ganga, are lying idle. This has been the situation of India for about two hundred years.
India was never so callous about scarcity and hunger. Growing an abundance of food and sharing it in plenty, annabahulya and annadana, have always constituted the foundation of dharma. All else, even the search for moksha, liberation, is built on this foundation. We believe that if India is to come into her own and assert her civilizational greatness in the present-day world, then first of all we have to overcome scarcity and recover the traditional discipline of ensuring plentiful food to share with all.
...
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... _crops_frameset.htm
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:23 AM
Science in Classical Indian Texts
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... cience_frameset.htm
The Infinity Foundation projects on History of Indian Science and Technology are based on a policy decision to be conservative and rigorous before accepting claims.In particular, we have wished to focus on those areas where physical evidence is available today, for scientific examination objectively, e.g. archeological evidence.
Therefore our projects have avoided including those claims that are extrapolated from classical Indian texts, such as Mahabharata.This conservative policy is partly because many exaggerations have been made by scholars lacking vigor and due diligence. This has earned the field a bad reputation, with "chauvinism" being a common allegation.
The collection of scientific claims presented in this special section is not a part of our History of Indian Science and Technology projects, for the reasons mentioned above.
The purpose for this section is to bring classical text based claims to serious forums for debate and critical examination, something that the old school controlling power over scholarship has prevented.
...
Yugayatri Introduction (http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... ugayatri_intro.swf)
1. Absorption of Water by Plants (http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... ption_of_water.swf)
2. Causes for Eclipses (http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... ses_of_eclipse.swf)
3. Circling the Square (http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/images/geometry.swf)
4. Distillation (http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... s/distillation.swf)
5. Electrical Cell (http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... lectrical_cell.swf)
6. Gravitational Force (http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... tational_force.swf)
7. Light (http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/images/Light_7clr.swf)
8. Motions (http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/images/motions.swf)
9. Period One Sidereal Day (http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... idereal_period.swf)
10. Size of an Atom (http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... ize_of_an_atom.swf)
11. Sunrise (http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/images/sunrise.swf)
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:28 AM
About The Date Of Caraka, The Famous Ancient Physician
By D.P. Agrawal
Tradition says that the Carakasamhita was originally compiled by Agnivesa under the guidance of his preceptor Atreya several millennia ago. Then it was presented to a congregation of sages who held it to be of a very high standard and praised its author. With the passage of time, it suffered emendations and interpolations. It is said that in 800 BC (?) the scholar-physician Caraka revised the Carakasamhita in the light of the new knowledge. The Carakasamhita today is held in high esteem as the most authentic of all the extant works on the Ayurevedic system of medicine. The term Caraka is derived from the root cat meaning "to move about". Caraka propagated his knowledge and gave relief to patients by moving from place to place.
It became famous all over the world. At the beginning of the 8th century AD this work was translated into Arabic. Caraka's name appears as "Sharaka Indiansus" in the Latin translations of Avicena, Razes and Serapion. Fihrest (finished in 987 AD) mentions that Carakasamhita was translated from Sanskrit into Persian and from Persian into Arabic. Al-Beruni's chief source of medicine was the Arabic edition of Caraka.
There is however considerable confusion about the age and identity of Caraka as this name was borne by several ancient scholars. In the white branch of the Yajurveda, Caraka is described as an evil god. A1-Beruni has described the term Caraka to stand for an intelligent person. According to Kasikavrtti, Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa is known as Caraka. The name Caraka is associated with Vedic, post-Vedic and even pre-Vedic sages. This is either their personal name or the name of the clan or school to which they belong. The propagator of the science of medicine and redactor of the Carakasamhita appears to be different from them. So much so that some modern scholars hold the view that Caraka and Patanjali are the names of one and the same sage. But it is obvious that Caraka preceded Patanjali.
The Carakasamhita, however does not provide any clue to the questions as to where and when Caraka lived. We have however some clues to determine his date:
1.
Caraka preceded Patanjali (200 BC);
2.
He probably preceded Buddhism (500BC) as there is no mention of Buddha and his philosophy in Carakasamhita;
3.
The prose style resembles that of the Brahmanas (c. 800BC).
On the basis of these clues, many scholars believe that Caraka redacted this work in the 8th BC. But P.V.Sharma places him at the third or second century BC, at the juncture of Maurya-Sunga periods. According to Mukhopadhyaya, Prof. Goldstucker has conclusively proved that Panini could not have flourished later than the sixth century BC. Panini wrote special sutras for Agnivesa and Caraka (Panini. Iv. 3. 107; iv.1. 105). These names must have been famous before Panini's time, otherwise he would not have written special sutra for them.
The Carakasmhita consists of 120 chapters which are distributed in 8 sections: Sutrasthana; Nidanasthana; Vimanasthana; Sarirasthana; Indriyasthana; Chikitsasthana; Kalpasthana; and Siddhisthana. Nomenclature of chapters of Caraka is based on the subject discussed in it and at times on the first word or phrase of the chapter. The important topics covered in this text are sarira or anatomy, vrtti or physiology, hetu or etiology, vyadhi or pathology, karma or therapeutics, kartr or the physician, karana or medicaments and appliances and vidhi or rules and regulations for diet, drug and regimen.
Caraka's discussion of matter bears a close identity with that of the Nyayavaisesika. Caraka believed that human body is composed of innumerable cells. They, in their turn, are composed of five mahabhutas, viz., prthvi, ap, tejas, vayu and akasa. Akasa being all-pervasive, only four mahabhutas are derived from the previous body. To this, four mahabhutas each from the sperm of the father, ovum of the mother and nutrient fluid supplied during pregnancy period are added. Thus the body is composed of 16 types of mahabhutas derived from four different sources. Of all the constituents of the body, three dosas, viz., vata, pitta and kapha (they are often wrongly rendered as wind, bile and phlegm respectively) play a vital role in normal as well as abnormal functions of the body and in the treatment of diseases. Their equipoise gives positive health, and any disturbance in the equilibrium results in disease and decay of the body. They regulate the functions of the mind also.
Caraka believed that foods and drugs as well as the body are composed of the same basic elements, viz., prthvi, ap, tejas, vayu and akasa. Body tissues are consumed during the process of work. These are to be replenished. Caraka has described agni or the enzymes required for digestion and metabolism to be responsible for the growth of the life-span, complexion, vitality, energy, plumpness, ojas, muscular strength, etc.
Caraka knew that blood circulates and gives life to different organs of the body. Heart is described as the controlling organ. Body is composed of innumerable channels, big and small. They not only supply nutrition to tissues but also take out the waste products from there. Caraka describes sperm and ovum to be composed of parts, and each part is again sub-divided. Different organs of the living being are represented in latent form in these sub-divided parts. If there is any defect in any of these sub-parts, then the corresponding organ of the child will be affected.
Caraka prescribed three important pursuits of life: longevity, wealth and also the wellbeing including salvation in the next life.
Caraka believed that diseases are caused by: 1) Intellectual blasphemy which includes immoral and anti-social activities due to the perversion of intelligence, patience and memory, that is, psychic factors; 2) Effects of time and season, that is, natural factors; and 3) Unwholesome contact with the objects of senses, that is, somatic factors. The concept of psychosomatic factors, including the natural ones, for the causation of diseases is a unique feature of Ayurveda. Twenty types of disease-causing germs are described in Caraka, some of them residing outside the body and some others inside. Various methods have been described in Caraka for the treatment of different diseases. They include oral medicines, eye drops, gargles, smoking, nasal inhalations, collyriums, ointments, creams, lotions, medicated oils and ghees, suppositories, tampons, cotton swabs, enemas, douches, fomentation, bandages, etc.
Carakasamhita describes one hundred and forty-nine important diseases. Three hundred and forty-one plants and plant products, 177 animal products and minerals are described along with the properties of most of them for the treatment of diseases. Poisonous plants and animals along with the treatment of their poisoning are described in detail. Caraka has described rejuvenation therapies to prevent aging of healthy individuals and to recover patients from their convalescence state. Similarly, aphrodisiac drugs to increase virility and cure impotency are described. Caraka has laid much emphasis on proper diet and regimen by healthy individuals as well as patients.
Most interesting fact is that there is a description of air-conditioning of houses ¨C cooling in summer and heating in winter.
Caraka has completely ruled out dogmatism in the field of medicine. The following, according to him, are the criteria for drawing correct conclusions: 1) Authentic testimony; 2) Direct observation; 3) Inference; and 4) Logical reasoning
According to Caraka, a physician should have compassion for patients. He should devote himself to the treatment of patients who are curable and reject those who are incurable. Caraka suggested that the ruler of the state must be ever vigilant to protect genuine physicians and ban the practice by pseudo-physicians, failing which such quacks will endanger the life and property of the people.
The rules of admission to medical sciences were strict. Before a student was admitted for the study of the medical science he was fully examined with reference to his physical qualities and mental aptitude. He had to take the oath of initiation in the presence of respectable persons of society to lead his life in such a way as would be conductive to his study. After completion of the study he was to be further examined before getting admission to the profession.
No doubt Caraka conceived the germ theory of the causation of diseases, but he rejected the idea that germs are the only causative factors for disease. On the other hand, he had advanced the theory that it is the imbalance of dosas and vitiation of dhatus which are primary causes of diseases, and various germs may grow in the body only when they get such a congenial environment. Both for metabolic diseases and infective ones, correction of the imbalance of dosas and dhatus constitutes the basic principle of all therapeutics. This is a unique feature of the Ayurvedic concept of diseases and their management as enunciated by Caraka in his monumental work.
Surprisingly, Caraka is very modern in his emphasis on the prevention of diseases than on cure. Similarly, the theories of immunity, digestion and metabolism are quite mundane. Caraka's description of the general nursing home, maternity home, medical ethics, emphasis on experimental scientific methodology, repudiation of dogmatism, heredity and many advanced concepts of pathogenesis and management of diseases bears testimony to its relevance today.
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... caraka_frameset.htm
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:30 AM
Ancient Jaina Mathematics: an Introduction
by D.P. Agrawal
The origins of Buddhism and Jainism can be placed around the middle of the first millennium BC. Both Jainism and Buddhism were basically rebellions against the rituals and sacrifices of the earlier Brahmanical religions. Somehow the Buddhists seem to have specialised in medicine and the Jainas in maths. Kuriyama says that surgery and physical Ayurveda became two separate traditions, surgery being more important amongst the Buddhists, who¡ are less hung up about ritual purity and contact with taboo bodily products such as blood. While in Jainism, the founder of the sect Mahavira himself has been claimed as a mathematician. During the period of the Brahmanas, the maths served the main purpose of rituals. The credit for giving maths the form of an abstract discipline goes to the Jainas.
Jaina mathematics is one of the least understood chapters of Indian science, mainly because of the scarcity of the extant original works. For example, the Jainas recognized five different kinds of infinity. They were the first to conceive of transfinite numbers, a concept, which was brought to Europe by Cantor in the late 19th century. The two thousand year old Jaina literature may hold valuable clues to the very nature of mathematics. This is one area where further research could prove very fruitful.
Joseph's book, The Crest of the Peacock, makes a delightful reading and is a powerful book against the Eurocentric History of Science and Technology. And precisely for this reason it has been criticised by western scholars. The following introduction to Jaina maths is mainly based on Joseph's work and A Concise History of Science in India edited by Bose et al.
Unfortunately sources of information on Jaina mathematics are scarce. A number of Jaina texts of mathematical importance have yet to be studied. Surya prajnapti, Jambu Dwipa Prajnapti, Sthananga sutra, Uttaradhyayana sutra, Bhagwati sutra and Anuyoga Dwara sutra are the oldest canonical literature. The first two works are datable to the third or fourth century BC; the others are at least two centuries later.
Basically their religious literature is classified into four groups, called "anuyoga"(the exposition of the principles of Janisim). Ganitanuyoga (the exposition of the principles of mathematics) was one of them. In the period between the end of the Brahamanas and beginning of the Siddhantic astronomy (c. 4th Century AD), the Jaina mathematics played a significant role.
Available Sources
The only treatise on arithmetic by a Jaina scholar, which is available at present, is the Ganita-sara-samgraha of Mahavira (c. AD 850). The author of the Ganita-sara-samgraha held that the great Mahavira, the founder of Jaina religion, was himself a mathematician.
In the history of the Jaina religion Bhadrabahu (c. Died 298 BC), a very prominent personage, is reputed as the last of the Srutakevalin, because of his phenomenal memory, which enabled him reproduce the entire Jaina canonical literature. Bhadrabahu is also known to be the author of the two astronomical works: (1) a commentary on the Suryaprajnapti and (2) an original work called the Bhadrabahavi-samhita. None of these works is available at present. Buhler found a work by the name of the Bhadrabahavi-samhita, but modern scholars have suspected its authenticity on the ground that:
(1) It is of the same character as the other Samhitas; (2) It has not been mentioned by Varahamihira (AD 505) who has referred to many anterior writers; (3) It gives the date of its last redaction as AD 511.
Umasvati was a reputed Jaina metaphysician, but not a mathematician, though he did refer to mathematical formulae. Siddhasena was another mathematician who has been referred to by Varahamihira also. However, from the specific treatises on mathematics we can get a lot of information about the Jainas' knowledge of mathematics from various Ardhamagadhi religious and secular books. Some valuable information as regards the knowledge amongst the early Jainas is expected to be found in the Ksetrasamasa (collection of the places) and Karanabhavana. Jinabhadra Gani (AD 550) wrote two works of the same class: a bigger one, called Brhata ksetrasamasa and a smaller one called Laghu ksetrasamasa.
Topics of Mathematics
According to the Sthananga-Sutra (c. First Century BC) the main themes for discussion in mathematics are ten in number: parikarama (fundamental operation), vyavahara (subjects of treatment), rajju (geometry), rasi (heap, mensuration of solid bodies), kalasavarna (fractions), yavat-tavat (simple equation), varga (quadratic equations), ghana (cubic equations), varga-varga (biquadratic equations) and vikalpa (permutations and combinations).
Abhayadeva surely thinks that varga, ghana and varga-varga refer respectively to the rules for finding the square, cube and fourth power of a number. But in Hindu mathematics from the earliest times squaring and cubing are considered as fundamental operations and as such they are covered by the terms parikarma. Abhayadeva Suri held that yavat-tavat refers to multiplication or to the summation of the series (samkalita). The early Jainas attached great importance to the subject of permutations and combinations (vikalpa).
The term yavat-tavat entered into the Hindu mathematics more than five centuries before the Greek Diophantus as the symbol for the unknown. The Greek Diophantus suggested that it is connected with the definition of the unknown quantity as "containing an indeterminate or undefined multitudes of units." The ancient work Curni defines the term parikarma as referring to those fundamental operations (sixteen in number) of mathematics as will befit a student to enter into the rest and the real portion of the science.
Certain Mensuration Formulae
In the Tattvarthadhigama-sutra-bhasya of Umasvati, there is also an incidental reference to two methods of multiplication and division. The multiplication by factor has been mentioned from Brahmagupta and the division by factor is found in the Trisatika of Sridhara. Umasvati is famous as one of the greatest metaphysicians of India and he is held in high esteem equally by the two main sections of the Jainas. He lived about 150 BC.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:31 AM
Schools of Mathematics
The culture of mathematics and astronomy survived in the School of Mathematics at Kusumapura (in Bihar), up to the end of the fifth century of the Christian era, while the school had begun near about the beginning of the Christian era. The famous Jaina saint Bhadrabahu (author of two astronomical works, a commentary on the Suryaprajnapti and the Bhadrabahavi-samhita) lived at Kusumapura. Two other important and well-known centres of mathematical studies in ancient India were Ujjain and Mysore. The Ujjain school included the greatest of Indian astronomers Brahmagupta and the mathematician Bhaskaracarya, while the southern school of Mysore had its representative in Mahaviracarya.
Suryaprajnapti (400BC) and other early Jaina Sutras give the length of the diameter and circumference of certain circular bodies. The formula for the arc of a segment less than a semicircle reappears in the Ganita-sara-samgraha of Mahavira and the Mahasiddhanta of Aryabhata II (AD 950). The Greek Heron of Alexandria takes the circumference of the segment less than a semicircle. In the Uttaradhyayana-sutra, the circumference is stated roughly to be a little over three times its diameter.
Permutations and Combinations
The early Jainas seem to have a great liking for the subject of combinations and permutations. A permutation is a particular way of ordering some or all of a given number of items. Therefore the number of ways of arranging them gives the number of permutations, which can be formed from a group of unlike items. A combination is a selection from some or all of a number of items, unlike permutations, the other is not taken into account. Therefore the number of ways of selecting them gives the number of combinations, which can be formed into a group of unlike items. Permutations and combinations were favourite topics of study among the Jainas. In the Bhagawati sutra are set forth simple problems such as finding the number of combinations that can be obtained from a given number of fundamental philosophical categories taken one at a time, two at a time, three at a time or more at a time. The Jaina commentator Silanka has quoted three rules regarding permutations and combinations, two of them are in Sanskrit verse and the other is most interestingly in Ardhamagadhi verse.
Law of Indices
The law of indices cannot be formulated precisely. But there are some indications that the Jainas were aware of the existence of these laws.
Theory of Numbers
Like the Vedic mathematicians, the Jainas had an interest in the enumeration of very large numbers, which was intimately tied up with their philosophy of time and space. All numbers were classified into three groups enumerable, innumerable and infinite, each of which was in turn sub-divided into three orders. The Jainas also classify numbers into odd and even categories. The Jainas could conceive of such huge units of time as 756X 1011 X 8,400,00028 days, which was termed Sirsaprahelika.
Certain Technical Terms
In the Jaina literature the modern geometrical term semi-diameter was found in the writings of Umasvati who calls it vyasardha or viskambhardha. The terms jiva for the chord of a segment of a circle and dhanuprstha for its arc occur in several early canonical works. The numeral symbols were written in two forms: ankalipi and ganitalipi.
Geometry
The term rajju was used in two different senses by the Jaina theorists. In cosmology it was frequently used as a measure of length of about 3.4 X 1021. But in a general sense the Jainas used this term for geometry or mensuration, in which they followed the Vedic sulbasutras. A variety of geometric terms were known to them: sama-cakravala, vratta (circle), jiva ( arc), parimandala (ellipse), ghana vratta (sphere) etc. They had derived the value of pi as root of 10.
As mentioned before, the Jainas recognized five different kinds of infinity: infinity in one direction; infinity in two directions; infinity in area; infinity everywhere; and infinity perpetually. This is quite a revolutionary concept, as the Jainas were the first to discard the idea that all infinities were same or equal, an idea prevalent in Europe till the late 19th Century.
The highest enumerable number (ie, N) of the Jainas corresponds to another concept developed by Cantor, aleph-null, also called the first transfinite number. In their theory of sets, the Jainas further distinguished two basic types of transfinite number. On both physical and ontological grounds, a distinction was made between asmkhyata and ananata, between rigidly bounded and loosely bounded infinities.
This brief glimpse into the Jaina maths clearly shows that mostly this is an uncharted area where a lot of research needs to be done. Two thousand year old Jaina mathematics may hold clues to the very nature of the foundations of mathematics: there lies its importance, and the challenge.
Main Sources:
Joseph, George Gheverghese. 1994. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics. London: Penguin Books.
Sen, S.N. 1971. Mathematics. In A Concise History of Science in India (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 136-212.
Reference:
Kuriyama, Shigeshi. 1999. The Expressiveness of the Body and the Divergence of Greek and Chinese Medicine. New York: Zone Books.
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... _jaina_frameset.htm
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:33 AM
Ancient Ship-Building & Maritime Trade
by D. P. Agrawal & Lalit Tiwari
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... _ships_frameset.htm
The beginnings of boat building technology in India go back to the Third Millennium BC, to the Harappan times. The Harappans (or Indus Civilization) constructed the first tide dock of the world for berthing and servicing ships at the port town of Lothal (Rao, 1987). The discovery of the Lothal port and dock in 1955 highlighted the maritime aspects of the Indus Civilization. At Lothal a trapezoid reservoir measuring on an average 214 x 36 meters has been excavated, and has been identified as a dockyard. It is riveted on all four sides with continuous dry masonry burnt-brick walls, 4- courses wide, which at its greatest extant depth reaches to 3m (but might have been originally much higher). The structure was stratigraphically connected to the old riverbed of Sabarmati. Towards the southern end there is a broad and relatively shallow gap. This has been supposed to be the inlet channel of the dock. Leading from the southern wall is a narrow brick water passage, said to have functioned as a spill channel, when fitted with a sluice-gate. According to S.R.Rao, the dock has been used in two stages, at the first stage it was designed to allow ships 18-20 meters long and 4-6 meters wide. At least two ships could simultaneously pass and enter easily. In the second stage, the inlet channel was narrowed to accommodate large ships but only single ships with flat bottoms could enter. The terracotta models of a boat from Lothal and engravings on Indus seals give some idea of ships going to the sea. Lothal is situated near Saragwala village, about fifty miles southwest of Ahmedabad. It lies in a level plain between the Bhogava and Sabarmati rivers and at present is some twelve miles from the Gulf of Cambay coast. The siltation rate of the Sabarmati delta is known to be rapid, so that in former times the site may actually have been nearer the sea. Lothal, with its large market and a busy dock, was a great emporium where goods from neighboring towns and villages, such as Rangpur, Kath etc. were sold in exchange for imported and locally manufactured ones. Lothal had developed overseas trade with the West Coast of India on the one hand and the Mesopotamian cities through the Bahrain islands on the other. Among the manufacturing industries of Lothal bead making, ivory and shell working and bronze-smithy were very important. For the land transport they used bullock carts and pack animals for long distance trade. For inland waterways, flat-bottomed boats of the type suggested by the terracotta models were used. In this connection it may be noted that even today flat-bottomed boats made of reeds are used for carrying men and light goods. Perhaps the Harappans used similar boats in the lakes and rivers also. Trade on the high seas and along the coast was possible because the ships were fitted with sails.
Harappans not only built a unique dock but also provided facilities for handling cargo. There were other smaller ports such as Bhagatrav, Sutkagendor and Sutkakah, and perhaps a large one at Dholavira, all in Gujarat. An engraving on a seal from Mohenjodaro represents a sailing ship with a high prow; the stern was made of reeds. In the center, it had a square cabin. Out of five miniature clay models of boats one is complete and represents a ship with sail. The latter has a sharp keel, a pointed prow and a high flat stern. Two blind holes are also visible. One of them seen near the stern was meant for the mast, and the other on the edge of the ship may be for steering. In the second model, which is rather damaged, the stern and the prow were both curved high up as in the Egyptian boats of the Garzean period. The keel is pointed and the margins are raised. A hole made a little away from the center was meant for the mast. In this case, the prow was broken. Three other damaged models found at Lothal have a flat base and a pointed prow, but the keel is not pointed nor is there any hole for fixing the mast. Apparently these flat-based craft were used on rivers and creeks without sail, while the other two types with sail and sharp keels plied on the high seas and were berthed in the deep waters of the Gulf. Probably the canoe types of flat-based boats were the only ones, which could be sluiced at high tide. Another type of boat can be reconstructed from the paintings on two potsherds. It represents a boat with multiple oars. The Harappan ship must have been as big as the modern country crafts, which bring timber from Malabar to Gogha. On this analogy it can be assumed that a load up to 60 tons could be carried by these ships. The sizes of the anchor stones found in the Lothal dock also support this view (Rao, 1979, 1985).
It is a recorded fact that Pushyadeva, the ruler of Sindh (now in Pakistan) pushed back the formidable Arab navy attacks in 756 AD, which only indicates his marine prowess. The historical text Yuktikalpataru (11th Century AD) deals with shipbuilding and gives details of various types of ships. Boats used for different purposes were called by different names such as Samanya, Madhyama and Visesha for passenger service, cargo, fishing and ferrying over the river. The earliest reference to maritime activities in India occurs in Rigveda, "Do thou whose countenance is turned to all side send off our adversaries, as if in a ship to the opposite shore: do thou convey us in a ship across the sea for our welfare" (Rigveda, 1, 97, 7 and 8).
The technology of boat building was a hereditary profession passing from father to son and was a monopoly of a particular caste of people. The local builders used the hand, fingers and feet as the units of measurements. In different places different kinds of boats were built for specific purposes. These boats may bear some similarity in material, techniques or in shape and size. For the construction of ship, the teak (Tectona grandis) wood is generally employed in India, though the selection of wood depends upon the nature and type of craft.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:33 AM
Technology
The traditional construction of a boat starts with the laying of a keel (keel is foundation beam for the boat and ship), a massive piece of wood supported on a branching stern about a foot above the ground at both ends. This is stepped to take the stern-post (rearmost part of a ship or boat) and also the stem post (the pointed front part of a ship or boat), all made of massive pieces of timber. The keel is laid first and later the planks or ribs are attached. Usually for the keel and stern one single piece of wood is always preferred. The planks are then fastened horizontally on either side of the keel. The planks join is edge to edge. Rudder is a flat broad piece of wood, which is mainly used for getting a forwards lead to the expected direction and is not seen in all traditional crafts. In some crafts the rudder is replaced by a paddle or oars, which function as a rudder. Paddle is a short oar with a broad blade at one or both ends and oar is a pole with a flat blade used in rowing. These are necessary for a straight and swift movement of the vessels. Generally all the ships use the wind power. In the ship the mast is fixed on ribs above the keel. The mast is made out of a timber tree but the builders prefer a bamboo piece, because of its suitability to make a mast long, and strong. Sail is a sheet of canvas spread to catch the wind and move a boat or ship forwards. It is used in traditional vessels; the shape of sail is triangular to make it easy to catch the wind. Sails are fixed to the mast with ropes. The sails are used mainly when the vessels are going to the mid sea, so that they can make use of the maximum wind energy.
Traditional Boat-building in various states of India
In India, there are various places that have the traditional boats and boat building technology. The Andhara coast is known for 4 types of traditional boats constructed for cargo transport, fishing and ferrying purposes, which are catamarans (teppa), dugout canoe, stitched-planks-built boats and
Nailed-planks-built boats. Generally the types of wood used for boat building in Andhra Pradesh are grannari karra (Egesa: Acquicia canilotica), arcini karra (Melia dubia), cinntha karra (Albizzia sp.), rai karra, teak, circini karra (Anogeissus sp.), mamidi karra (Mango: Magnifera indica), sal (Shorea robusta), Indian laural (Terminalia tormentosa) and maddi (Alianthus malabarica). Teppas are simple floating devices, but are the predominant traditional sea craft along the Andhra Pradesh. Some keeled planked boats locally called padavas are also common vessels along the Andhra coastline. In Andhra these traditional boats are constructed at Nellare, Prakaram, Godavari and Guntur districts.
Boats in Karnataka region are called by different names depending on their use. The smallest craft of this region is known as canoe (hudi), which is scooped out of a singletree trunk. The middle-sized craft is known as boat (doni) and the biggest craft is known as ship (machchwa). Most ships use wind power. The art of shipbuilding is a monopoly of a class of people known as mestas or acharis (carpenter). The type of wood used for shipbuilding is known as kshatriya, which is mentioned in Yuktikalpataru. The common wood used for shipbuilding is matthi, sagouy, teak, honne, undi and hebbals. Teakwood is used rarely because of its high coast.
Raft, dugout and plank built boats are the main traditional types in the Kerala coast. Raft is made of a number of roughly shaped logs fastened together in order to float down a river or to serve as a boat. Dugout is single log craft, which is scooped out in the middle. It is employed all over Kerala for catching fish. Planked built boats are further classified into 2 categories: one is stitched and the second is built with nailed planks. Stitched-planked built craft is manufactured by using coir and synthetic ropes. Generally, the types of wood used for shipbuilding in Kerala are alpassi, mullumurukku or panniclavu (Ceiba pentandra), perumaram/alanta (Alianthus excelsa), pilivaka (Albizzia falcatria), malamurukku (Samanea saman), pilavu (Artocarpus integrifolias), mavu (Magnifera indica), ayini/annili (Artocarpus hirsuta), punna (Callophyllum inophyllum) and cadacci (Grewia tiliaefolia). The bending process is purely based on traditional method by applying a kind of fish oil or cow dung on the planks.
The traditional boat builders of Chilika region in Orisa are called Bindhani, Barhais and Biswakaramas (carpenters). They build small flat-bottomed boats known as nauka or danga. Sal is used for construction of nauka. The knowledge of boat building has come down as a family tradition. Bamboos are used as mast, locally called gudda.
The boat builders and ships have been depicted in the brick temple in the district of Midnapore, Birbhum and Bankura in Bengal. The vessels are classified as raft, dugouts and cargo carriers and are used for commercial purpose. Dinghy is a one-man passenger boat in Bengal. It is unique for its features and movement in the river. The boatman squats at paddling on the low sharp stem to maneuver in the zigzag path of the river. A neat cabin with semicircular roof occupies the space available in the middle of the boats. A tall bamboo mast is generally used for long distance travel. In Bengal, small boat is never used except as cargo carriers. The steering paddle is the most remarkable feature of the cargo carriers (Malbahi nauka).
Now a days, in Bombay there are no boat building yards to be found in or around, except may be at Varai and Versova. Available wild woods are commonly used for construction of boats and ships. They are not very expensive. The main types of wood that are utilized today are sal, babul, ain, bibla, jambul and punnai, but the teak wood is always the best for ship and boat building and is preferred in Bombay too. Ain wood is some times used for building a major portion of the boat. It is a hard wood and very similar to teak in its properties.
In Lakeshadweep, coconut tree is locally available in abundance, thus coconut wood is still used in local boats, but it is difficult to say with authority, what made early boat builders to use coconut wood. Coconut wood is now used for bulwarks, masts, cross stays, sides ribs, etc. and for cabin removable thatched roofs etc. Mango or breadfruit tree wood is also used. Boats of Lakeshdweep can broadly be divided into two categories based on their use: trading vessels and fishing vessels. Bareues, odies, bandodies, dweep odam or valiya odam are some trading vessels and tharappan, odam, mas odi, odi jahadhoni, mahadha dhoni, kelukkam dhoni, allam dhoni or dhoni, ara dhoni are some fishing crafts and jhaha dhoni is a race boat in Lakeshdweep. Stand odam is the most widely used typical boat of Lakeshdweep. Boats in Lakeshdweep are not built for sale, but only for the use of islanders.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:34 AM
Conclusion
Indian boat technology and navigational knowledge goes back to the III Millennium BC. Traditional boat builders could make ships, which were fully sea-worthy and could sale to West Asia. But now all over India the traditional boat building technology is in a declining condition due to changes of technology and advancement in mechanized systems. This is best exemplified in Andhra Pradesh by the use of catamarans, which are being manufactured from synthetic materials in small-scale industries. These synthetic catamarans are now a day preferred by traditional fisher folk because of their longevity, payload, cost, range and easy manoeurability. Several manufacturing industries have come up in the Srikalulam and Ganjam districts of Orissa. There are hardly a few places in India such as Kakinada, Cuddalore, Beypore and Veraval engaged in construction of sea going vessels at present. Now a days traditional boats are only used for crossng rivers, coastal transport and fishing. It is however satisfying to note that traditional boat building technology is being harmoniously combined with modern technology to produce more efficient vessels.
Further Reading
Bawan, R.L. 1960. Egypt's earliest sailing ships. Antiquity 34(134): 117.
Behera, K.S. (Ed.). 1999. Maritime Heritage of India. Delhi: Aryan Books International.
Gaur, Aniruddh Singh. 1993. Belekeri as traditional boat building center in North Kanara Dist. Karnataka, India. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 69.
Gill, J. S. 1993. Our heritage of traditional boat building. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 74.
Gill, J. S. 1993. Material for modern boat building industry. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 76.
Greeshmalatha, A. P. and G. Victor Rajamanickam. 1993. An analysis of different types of traditional coastal vessels along the Kerala Coast. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 36.
Hornell, J. 1920. The origin and ethnological significance of Indian boat designs. Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 7(3): 139-287.
Jain, Kirti. 1993. Boat building and the Son Kolis of the Raigad Dist. Maharashtra. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 89.
Kunhali, V. 1993. Ship building in Beypore- a study in materials, workers and technology. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 56.
Leshnik, S.Lawrence. 1979. The Harappan "Ports" at Lothal : another view. In Ancient Cities of the Indus (Ed.) Gregory L Possehl. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Rama Sankar and Sila Tripathi. 1993. Boat building technology of Bengal: an overview of literary evidence. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 84.
Raman, K.V. 1997. Roads and river transportation. In History of Technology in India (Ed.) A.K.Bag. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp.592-93.
Rao, S.R. 1979, 1985. Lothal ¨C A Harappan Port Town. 2 vols. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. Pp.225- 26, 505.
Rao, S.R. 1987. Progress and Prospects of Marine Archaeology. Goa: NIO.
Rao, S.R. (Ed.). 1991. Recent Advances in Marine Archaeology. Goa: NIO.
Rao, S. R. 1993. Missing links in the history of boat-building technology of India. In Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 60.
Raut, L. N. and Sila Tripathi. 1993. Traditional boat-building centers around Chilika Lake of Orissa. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 51.
Sundaresh. 1993. Traditional boat-building centers of Karnataka coast- a special reference of Honavar, Bhatkal, and Gangolly. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 29.
Thivakaran, G. A. and G. Victor Rajamanickam. 1993. Traditional boat-building in Andhra Pradesh. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 12.
Tripathi, Alok. 1993. Traditional boats of Lakshadweep. Journal of Marine Archaeology 4: 92.
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:35 AM
Ayurveda: the Traditional Indian Medicine System and its Global Dissemination
by D. P. Agrawal & Lalit Tiwari
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... urveda_frameset.htm
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:36 AM
Copper Technology in the Central Himalayas Dates Back to 2000BC
By D.P. Agrawal & Lalit Tiwari
Posted 11/3/03
The discovery of copper marks the beginning of the Chalcolithic period when humans started using metal instead of stone and clay to fabricate their hunting tools, domestic utensils and other artifacts like ornaments, decorative pieces and mirrors. The oldest evidence of the use of regular copper artifacts comes from the Nal Cemetery in Quetta, dating back to III Millennium BC. Mehrgarh in Baluchistan has given some fragments of the earliest copper fragments datable to the V Millennium BC.
Copper is one of the most important metals on this Earth. In India, copper was traditionally used in religious ceremonies. Rasa Ratnasamuccaya, an early medieval work, provides a vivid account of the processes of extraction of copper along with its use in Ayurvedic and traditional medicinal systems. Copper mining is mentioned in ancient works from Kautilya's Arthsastra (3rd Century BC) to Ain-i-Akbari written by Sheikh Abul Fazal in 1590 AD. In Kumaun, in the Central Himalayas, copper smithy is an old traditional technology.
Archaeological Evidence
Kumaun is known for its hoary metallurgical traditions and seems to have played a significant role in the traditional copper technology. Some evidence related to the Copper Hoards Culture shows that copper mining was a thriving industry in Kumaun region. The Copper Hoard Culture is generally dated to II Millennium BC.
There are three significant finds of Copper Hoards' type of artifacts from Kumaun, one from Bankot, second from Pitalpani, and the last from Haldwani. In 1989, a hoard of eight anthropomorphic copper objects was discovered while digging a stone quarry close to the Bankot Inter College. It contaieds 98% copper, 1.22% iron, and some minor impurity of arsenic. Another anthropomorphic copper artifact was found from a scrap shop at Haldwani in the Nainital district, similar to the ones reported from the Gangetic valley. Thus, there is strong circumstantial evidence that the copper technology of Kumaun may go back to the II Millennium BC. Half of the analyzed Copper Hoards artifacts have shown a significant presence of arsenic. As the copper mines of Kumaun also have arsenic bearing minerals, there is a high probability that copper for the Copper Hoards Culture derived from Kumaun.
Ancient Mining Evidence
There are several rich ancient copper ore sites in the Central Himalayan region such as Kharahi Patti, Rai-Agar, Bora-Agar, Askot and Ramgarh in Kumaun and Dhanpru, Dhobri, Pokhri, Chaumattiya, Raja, Danda, Talapungla, Kharna Nota, and Thala mines in Garhwal. Generally Chalcopyrite is the common mineral in the Central Himalayan's copper mines. Agar village mines situated in the Pithoragarh district were perhaps the most important copper mines of Kumaun during the British period. An ancient furnace was located at this village near the talc mine. There are three rectangular pits in two terraces in the village. Two of them, Pits #1 and #2, are dug in the upper terrace, while Pit #3 is on a lower terrace and is comparatively bigger. The Kharahi Patti mines, in the Bageshwar district, are located close to the north of the town of Almora and extends between Binsar and Bageshwar. According to Atkinson, the Gaul mine of Kharahi Patti and the Sor Gurang mines produced grey copper in small quantities. Tamtyura, Danochhina, Changochhina, Kharak Tamta, Ghingarkhola, Binsar, Bhatkola, Simsyari, Bihargaon, Uder khani, Bilona, Agar, Gair-Siekra, Lob, and Beragaon were some of the sites where metallurgy was practiced in ancient times. In some villages such as Tamtyura, Uder khani, Binsar, Sikra, Kharak Tamta, and Jula, copper smithy is still practiced, but mining and smelting are not. Out of its 500 families, approximately 65 families are practicing copper smithy at present. Only the Tamta caste people did the copper smithy in ancient times.
Recent Historical Evidence
According to the local copper craftsmen of Kumaun, a Chandra king of Champawat brought coppersmiths form Rajasthan to set up coppersmithy in Kumaun Himalayas during the medieval period. Their first settlement is said to be at the Gosni village near Lohaghat. Later on, with the transfer of the capital from Champawat to Almora sometime in the first half of the 16th Century AD, some of the families of the coppersmiths were also brought to Almora to produce necessary items like tablets and stamps. During the Gorkha regime in the 18th and 19th centuries, two brothers, Raibhan and Jaibhan, were given land near Lamgara in Almora district to settle down and to produce traditional utensils. Some Tamta families also shifted to Kharahi Patti (Bageshwar District), probably in search of copper ores. In 1884, the British government banned the mining activity in Kharahi Patti. In 1942-43, a group of people agitated and urged the government to withdraw the ban imposed on mining in the Kharahi Patti. During 1952-56, the Khan-garh area was explored for the occurrence of copper ore by the Indian government. Today, these copper mines are completely closed.
Mining technology
According to the traditional accounts, in olden times people used a large bag on their back for collecting the ore. This work was done by the lower castes. After collecting the ore, it was washed with water to remove the soil. Then, cleaned ore was mixed with fresh cow dung to make small pellets. These pellets were dried in the sun and charged into the furnace or in a big handi like crucible, which is made of locally available brown clay, tempered with powdered quartz or limestone and bafila grass. While smelting the ore, the pot was covered with ash, and the molten liquid copper settles down at the base of the crucible.
Today, utensils (like thali, parat, water drum, lota, kuni, gagri) are fabricated, but some workers also make traditional decorative items like idols and statues through cold and hot work with the help of a hammer. Carving and engraving on copper artifacts are the most remarkable features of these traditional copper works. For soldering they use a mixture of brass, zinc, copper, tin, and borax. They coat it and heat it on the furnace. They use rice husks as a washing and polishing agent in their traditional copper smithy.
The furnace which they use is locally known as afar. It has the large wheel of a bicycle, but in olden times it was made of wood which was cased in iron. A small fan tied with ropes directly connects with this wheel. The fan has a small nozzle which is made of clay and ropes and is locally known as nava.
Conclusion
In Kumaun we thus see that traditional technologies have continued for millennia, and are relevant even today to the lives of the common people. Perhaps it holds the key to their economic regeneration.
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... copper_frameset.htm
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:39 AM
India Was the First to Smelt Zinc by Distillation Process
By D.P. Agrawal & Lalit Tiwari
Zinc is a very interesting metal and was responsible for the innovation of utensils of mock silver and coins of mock gold. Because of the low boiling point (907¡ãC) zinc is difficult to smelt. Brass (an alloy of copper and zinc) however is known from even 3rd Millennium BC in China, but brass can be produced from naturally occurring minerals containing zinc and copper. Pure zinc could be produced only after the mastery of distillation techniques, which have been described in our ancient chemical treatises. The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to 6th Century BC. Distillation process however was being used only from the 12th century AD, thus India is the first to produce zinc by distillation processes.
We are sure that the following story of early zinc production and lead about the ancient Indian chemists and metallurgists will be of interest to the students of history of science and technology.
Zinc is silvery white in colour, hard and brittle owing to its closely packed hexagonal crystal structure. In the 17th and 18th century Germans called this metal 'Caunterfeitum' or mock-silver because of its silvery white lusture. Its boiling point is 907¡ãC. The main minerals of zinc in nature are calamine and sphalerite and mostly these occur in combination with the minerals of copper, lead, silver and iron. There is confusion about early occurrence of zinc and its extraction by the distillation process. The regular zinc production by distillation started in India around 12th century AD and in China it is not earlier then 16th century AD. As early as the 12th century AD, India produced the metallic zinc by the sophisticated distillation process at Zawar in Rajasthan. This technology of zinc manufacture is also described in several Indian alchemical works of the mediaeval period including the 13th century Rasa Ratna Samuccaya. The word used in this document to describe the distillation process involved is tirakpatnayantra, which translated literally, means "distillation by descending". Various zinc-smelting processes were also described in the Sanskrit works of medicinal chemistry and alchemy, viz., Rasarnavam Rastantram (500-100 BC), Rasratnakar (2nd century AD) and Rasprakash Sudhakar (12th century AD). In China zinc was first reported in the 16th century by the excavation in Gui-Zhan region of Yun-han, but the new research by the Chinese scholars gives a clear indication that zinc smelting began in China in the Jiajung period (1552-1566 AD) of the Ming dynasty. In 17th century China exported zinc to Europe under the name of totamu or tutenag. Tutenag possibly has its origin in the word Tutthanagaa maening zinc in South Indian languages.
Vijaya Deshpande (1996:276-279) claims that zinc extraction in India had definitely started by the 13th century AD at Zawar. The earliest literary evidence for the production of metallic zinc on a regular basis comes from India (Craddock 1987/88). There are references to burning a metal, rasa, to produce an eye salve, which should refer to zinc placing its use in the last centuries of the first millennium BC. The Rasaratnakara, which was probably compiled in its present form in the seventh or eighth century AD, is ascribed to Nagarjuna, the great Indian scientist who lived in the 14th century AD. It describes both the production of brass by the familiar cementation process and of metallic zinc.
Zinc mine at Zawar
Willie (1989) has described that the ancient mines at Zawar in Rajasthan are both open cast and underground. He has concluded that the host rock at Zawar is metamorphosed, sheathed hard and compact dolomite, except within the weathered zone. The abundance of charcoal waste and ash found on the floor of the old mine has indicated mining by fire setting method, which must have created acute ventilation problem inside the mine. The inner side of the mine was worked very methodically; the floor was kept clean and well lit by oil lamps placed at suitable distances. Clean drinking water was also put in large earthen jars. Transport of the ore, waste, timber and water must have been a major task and for this, good pathways were made with wood and stone. On the outer slopes of the hills ample evidence has been found about the techniques used for breaking and beneficiating the ore. The ore mineral was hand picked and broken, when necessary using stone hammers and slightly hollowed work stones. In the recent excavation of Zawar region several uncovered banks of furnaces were found. These furnaces were outlined in the Rasa Ratna Samuccaya and these are just like an industrial version, with banks of between three and seven furnaces and each furnace held 36 retorts (Craddock 1987:183-191).
Smelting process of zinc
There are few metals, which are produced by the reduction distillation technique, and zinc is one of them. Craddock et al (1985) have mentioned that distillation technology and apparatus were used in ancient times in India for the process of distillation of water, wine, mercury and zinc. The process used for the distillation of zinc in Zawar mines is unique because it is designed on the basis of downward distillation. After the sizing and beneficiation, the ore was mixed with charcoal dust and fired in to a heap to convert it in to oxide. This roasted ore was again mixed with more charcoal powder, salt and borax as flux and thoroughly mixed with cow dung and water, then made in to balls of 5 to 10mm diameter by hand rolling. These pellets were dried in sun and then filled into the brinjal shaped retorts. The retorts are of two sizes with capacity of 750 and 2000cc. In the excavation at Zawar region these retorts have been found. Each distillation unit had two parts, a lower condensing chamber and upper main furnace chamber. The lower chamber was square in plan and separated by perforated bricks from the upper chamber, which was in the form of a truncated pyramid. The internal dimensions of the furnaces (taken from furnaces 3 and 4) at the base were 660mm ´ 690mm, being slightly wider across the side with the entrance to the lower chamber. The division between lower chamber and the furnace proper was made by four of the perforated bricks (55mm thick), fitting closely together and resting (but not mortared) on a projecting brick ledge at the side with a single clay peg providing support in the centre. The use of a peg was necessary to reduce absorption to a minimum as the lower chamber, which contained the collecting vessels, was entered through just one small opening. Each of the perforated bricks had 9 large (35 mm diameter) holes to accommodate the condenser necks and 26 smaller holes (plus 9 shared with neighbouring bricks) for the passage of air into the furnace and for ash to drop through (Craddock et al, 1985: 45-52).
In this apparatus, at high temperature, solid charge was held in to upper inverted pot by sealing its mouth with clay and fixing a reed stick in the centre for the escape of gases etc. Another matching earthen pot was kept into a trough full of water. During the processing the upper inverted pot was heated by building a fire on a platform around it. On reaching the cherry red temperature (600ºC) the reed was charred and brunt off and the reduced metal vapours were forced downward into the condenser where it got deposited into liquid or solid metal.
Conclusion
The distillation technique of zinc and heating from outside was traditionally similar in both India and China but condensation method of zinc vapour was different. A rough and conservative conclusion suggests that perhaps 2,50,000 tonnes of zinc concentrates were extracted from some 2.5 million tonnes of ore in the total mined area before modern mining commenced. The Zawar industry is the most unusual phenomena of a fully-fledged technology with neither antecedents nor successors and apparently no contemporaries either, for even within India it seems unique.
References
Agrawal, D.P. 2000. Ancient Metal Technology and Archaeology of South Asia. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. Pp. 204-214.
Craddock, P.T. 1987. The early history of zinc. Endeavour 11(4): 183-191.
Craddock, P.T. 1987-88. The early history of zinc and brass. Wiener Berichte uber Naturwissenschaft in der Kunst 4/5: 225-45.
Craddock, P.T., I.C.Freestone, L.K.Gurjar, K.T.M. Hegde and V.H. Sonawane. 1985. Early zinc production in India. Mining Magazine. Pp. 45-52.
Craddock, P.T. and W.Zhou 1999. Traditional zinc production in modern China: survival and evolution. BUMA conference Proceedings Pp.85-96.
Despande, Vijaya 1996. A note on ancient zinc-smelting in India and China. Indian Journal of History of Science 31(3): 276-79.
Hegde, K.T.M., P.T.Craddock and V.H.Sonawane. 1984. Report on the Excavation of Ancient Zinc Smelting Furnace at Zawar, Rajasthan.
Prakash Bhanu.1997. Metal and metallurgy. In History of Technology in India (Ed.) A.K.Bag. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp.136-143.
Sing R.D. 1997. Mining. In History of Technology in India (Ed.) A.K.Bag. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 62-68.
Willies L.1984. Ancient lead and zinc mining in Rajasthan, India. World Archaeology 16(2): 222-33.
Willies L.1987. Ancient zinc-lead and silver mining in Rajasthan, India. BULP Interim Report 10(2): 81-123.
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... w_zinc_frameset.htm
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:42 AM
Indian Chemistry Through The Ages
by D.P. Agrawal
It is now known that alchemy (the older form of chemistry) had made great strides in India. Ayurveda, which used a variety of minerals, also played an important role in the development of chemistry. It developed as iatrochemistry, which was closely related to medicine. The two main incentives for the development of chemistry were the age-old desires of human beings: to live forever and to get rich. Much of chemistry grew out of the early efforts to develop an elixir and to turn base metals into gold. It is also interesting to note that Needham claimed that earliest distillation of alcohol is attested to through the archaeological finds at Taxila. In fact, the ancient name of alcohol is khola, which sounds so similar to it!
1. Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BC)
The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, which had developed an elaborate urban system depicted in terms of streets, public baths, temples and granaries etc. They also had the means of mass production of pottery, houses of backed bricks and a script of their own. So we can say that the story of early chemistry in India begins from here.
Pottery: It could be regarded as the earliest chemical process in which materials were mixed, moulded and fired to achieve desirable qualities. Thousands of pieces of pottery were found in the Rajasthan desert, varied in shape, size and colour. They show that prehistoric people knew the art of making pottery by using burnt clay. Coloured and wheel made pottery was found at Harappa. Pottery was decorated with various designs including geometric and floral patterns as well as human and animals figures. Remains of glazed pottery were also found at Mohenjodaro.
Bricks: Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses, drains, boundary walls, public bath etc.
Cement: Gypsum cement had been used in the construction of a well in Mohenjodaro. It was light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate and lime.
Minerals: The Indus valley people used a number of minerals for a variety of useful products such as medicinal preparations, plasters, hair washes etc. Faience, which is a sort of proto-glass, was quite popular with the Harappans and was used for ornaments. They also smelted and forged a variety of objects from lead, silver, gold, and copper; and also used tin and arsenic to improve the hardness of copper for making artefacts.
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:43 AM
Iron In Kumaun Goes Back To First Millennium BC
by D.P. Agrawal and Manikant Shah
The discovery and the use of iron by man was an epoch making event, which gave a fillip to his progress. The discovery of iron was perhaps associated with copper smelting, as it was collected by accident when the furnace temperature reached above 1500º C. It is also acknowledged that the use of meteoric iron was not unknown to the ancient civilizations.
Now since, in India, many centers of iron technology have been identified, no single source of influence or independent center of iron technology can be identified. On the other hand, the second urbanization of the Ganga ¨C Yamuna Doab must have required considerable quantities of iron. The question is: could Kumaun be the source of this iron.
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:46 AM
Needham On Early Indian Inventions Of Hydraulics, Cotton-Gins And Alcohol Distillation
by D.P. Agrawal
We would like to draw attention to Habib's recent article, as it is very relevant to TKS studies. It provides some insights into Needham's mind. As we know, Joseph Needham was such a great scholar to bring Oriental Science to the notice of the West.
Habib also dwells upon some very important mechanical instruments invented by the Indians which were noticed by the ever perceptive eyes of Needham.
Habib writes, The great venture of the late Joseph Needham, the publication of the monumental series, Science and Civilisation in China, began in 1954. As the volumes came out it became clear that Needham was not simply concerned with the development of science and technology in China, but wished to set it in a worldwide context, with special attention paid to inter-cultural exchanges. It, therefore, became necessary for him to establish the sequence of developments that had taken place in civilisations other than the Chinese. While for Europe there was a vast amount of work already done, whose results he could use, this was by no means the case with India, Iran and Central Asia. And yet Needham extensively explored the scientific and technological aspects of the Indian and Islamic civilisations, going to texts and many out-of-the-way secondary sources. His statements on India, often occurring as asides, were never carelessly made, and invariably gave a critical assessment of the existing state of research; and he often gave good guidance on areas that needed to be explored (P.246).
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:48 AM
Susruta: The Great Surgeon of Yore
by D.P. Agrawal
Ayurveda, the ancient Indian medicine system is better recognised now by the West. It is less known that great strides were made in the field of surgery too. Rhinoplasty, inoculation against small pox etc were practiced in India even as late as the 18th Century AD, as shown by Dharampal. Indian surgery has great potentialities for research. The Indian technique of rhinoplasty has earned many laurels outside the country. Similarly, plastic surgery as a whole, management of injuries, and some simple measures as substitutes of surgical manipulations have of late been brought to light. Susruta was a great surgeon of ancient India, though there is considerable controversy about his age. Surgical science was called Salya-tantra (Salya ¨C broken parts of an arrow and such other sharp weapons; tantra ¨C manoeuvre). The broken parts of the arrows or similar pointed weapons of the enemy were regarded as the commonest and most dangerous of foreign objects causing wounds and requiring surgical treatment. Thus a primitive sort of surgery was as old as warfare itself.
Susruta is stated to be the son of Visvamitra in the the Susrutasamhita. The The exact identity of this Visvamitra is not known clearly. Sustruta was sent to study Ayurveda with special emphasis on Salya (surgery) under Divodasa Kasi Raja Dhanvantari of the Upanishadic age. Since the text contains a reference to Krishna the identity and chronology of his father Visvamitra becomes confused
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Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:52 AM
What Eleventh-Century Spain Knew About Indian Science and Math
By Alok Kumar, PhD
In the eleventh-century, an important manuscript titled "The Categories of Nations" was authored in Arabic by Said al-Andalusi, who was a prolific author and in the powerful position of a judge for the king in Muslim Spain. A translation and annotation of this was done S.I. Salem and Alok Kumar and published by University of Texas Press: "Science in the Medieval World". This is the first English translation of this eleventh-century manuscript. Below is one complete chapter from this that pertains to the scientific strength of India. It demonstrates how European scholars felt about India prior to the colonial period, during which such works were stopped and prior manuscripts not translated and/or brought into the public attention.
Chapter V: Science in India (Translation)
The first nation (to have cultivated science) is India. This is a powerful nation having a large population, and a rich kingdom (possession). India is known for the wisdom of its people. Over many centuries, all the kings of the past have recognized the ability of the Indians in all the branches of knowledge.
The kings of China have stated that the kings of the world are five in number and all the people of the world are their subjects. They mentioned the king of China, the king of India, the king of the Turks, the king of the Furs (Persians) and the king of the Romans (1). They referred to the king of China as the "king of humans" because the people of China are more obedient to authority and are stronger followers of government policies than all the other peoples of the world. They referred to the king of India as the "king of wisdom" because of the Indians careful treatment of `ul?m (sciences) and their advancement in all the branches of knowledge. They referred to the king of the Turks as the "king of lions" because of the courage and the ferocity of the Turks. They referred to the king of Persia as the "king of kings" because of the richness, glory and importance of his kingdom, since Persia had subdued the kings of the center of the populated world, and because it controlled, to the exclusion of other kingdoms, the most fertile of the climatic regions. And they referred to the king of the Romans as the "king of men" because the Romans, of all the peoples, have the most beautiful faces, the best built bodies and the most robust physique.
The Indians, as known to all nations for many centuries, are the metal (essence) of wisdom, the source of fairness and objectivity. They are peoples of sublime pensiveness, universal apologues, and useful and rare inventions. In spite of the fact that their color is in the first stage of blackness, which puts them in the same category as the blacks, Allah, in His glory, did not give them the low characters, the poor manners, nor the inferior principles associated with this group and ranked them above a large number of white and brown peoples.
Some astrologers came up with an explanation for this condition; they said that both Saturn and Mercury control the destiny of the Indian people. Because of the influence of Saturn, their color turned black, while the influence of Mercury provided them with intellectual power and fine spirit. Saturn in partnership with Mercury gave them correctness of reasoning and depth of perception. This is why they enjoy the purity of talent and the power of distinction, making them totally different from the people of Sudan (Blacks) (2) such as the Zinj, the Abyssinians, the Ethiopians and others. To their credit, the Indians have made great strides in the study of numbers (3) and of geometry. They have acquired immense information and reached the zenith in their knowledge of the movements of the stars (astronomy) and the secrets of the skies (astrology) as well as other mathematical studies. After all that, they have surpassed all the other peoples in their knowledge of medical science and the strengths of various drugs, the characteristics of compounds and the peculiarities of substances.
Their kings are known for their good moral principles, their wise decisions, and their perfect methods of exercising authority. As to theology, they are in agreement as to the unity of God, may His power and glory be proclaimed, and they exalt Him above any polytheism, but they are in disagreement about His various manifestations (4). Some of them are Brahman and others are Sabians (5). The Brahman are few in number and are descendants of noble ancestry. Some of them believe in the creation of the world while others believe in its eternity. But they are in agreement as to the banning of prophecies, prohibiting the slaughter of animals and refraining from maltreating them or eating their food (6). But the sabians, and they are the overwhelming majority of the Indians, believe in the eternity of the world because it is created by the creator of creators, God Himself, may His power and glory be proclaimed. They revere the stars and represent them in paintings and approach them with offerings, each in accordance with what they have learned about its nature. Thus, they obtain the power of each star and use it in the lower world in accordance with their wishes. They believe in the times of return, in the revolutions of planets and their orbits, in the destruction of all the derivatives of the four elements every time the seven planets meet in the head of the lamb (Aries), and in the recreation of compounds during every cycle (7). On this matter, they have numerous views and a variety of doctrines as we have indicated in our book "Articles about the Doctrines and Religions of Peoples."
Author: changabula Time: 2007-12-13 12:52 AM
As Indians are far from our country and many kingdoms separate us from them, we have very few of their books. Only a small fraction of their knowledge and a few fragments about their religions have reached us, and we have heard about only a small number of their scholars (8).
Of the Indian's astronomical systems, the three that are well known are the Sindhind and it means the cyclic time and the Arjbahd (Arjabhar) and the Arkand (Khandakhadyaka of Brahmagupta) (9). We have received correct information only about the Sindhind system, which was adopted and further developed by a group of Muslim scientists. Among them were Muh.ammad bin Ibrahim al-Faz?ri (fl.c.760-790 A. D.) (10), H.abesh bin `Abd Allah al-Baghd?di, Muh.ammad ibn M?s? al-Khuwarizmi (c.800-c.847 A.D.), al-H.usayn ibn Muh.ammad also known as ibn al-?dami? (fl. c. 920 A.D.) and others (11). The meaning of Sindhind is ad-dahr ad-d?hir (the infinite time or the cyclic time) (12). This is the way it was reported by ibn al-?dami? in his tables of astronomy. Those, who believe in the Sindhind, say that all the seven planets and their apogees and perigees meet in the head of Aries once every four thousand thousand thousand years and three hundred thousand thousand year and twenty thousand thousand solar years (13). They call this cycle "the period of the universe" because they believe that when all the planets meet in the head of Aries everything found on earth will perish leaving the lower universe in a state of destruction for a very long time until the planets and their apogees and perigees disperse back to their zodiacs (constellations). When this takes place the world returns to its original state. The cycle repeats itself indefinitely. The Sindhind advocates gave no explanation for this behavior but they claim that for each planet and its apogee and perigee there is an orbit, which it completes in a given time which they call the period of the universe. I have already mentioned that in my book, "Written for the Rectification of the Movements of the Stars."
Those who believe in the Arjbahd agree with the followers of the Sindhind except for the length of the period of the cycle of the universe. They believe that the planets and their apogees and perigees meet in the head of Aries in one thousandth of the period claimed by the Sindhind, and this is the essence of their doctrine.
The followers of the Arkand differ from the two previous schools in their description of the movements of the planets and also in the length of the period of the cycle of the universe. I have not been informed of the exact nature of this difference (14).
What has reached us from the work of the Indians in music is the book known in the Indian language as Bafir (Nafir) which means Thimar al-H.ikmah (the fruits of wisdom). It contains the fundamentals of modes and the basics in the construction of melodies.
What has reached us from their works on the improvement of morals and the amelioration of upbringing is the book "Kalilat wa Dimna", which was brought by the Persian H.akim (physician or wise) Burzuwaih from India to Anusharwan (fl. 550 A.D.) ibn Qib?d ibn Fayruz, king of Persia. Burzuwaih translated Kalilat wa Dimna for the king from the Indian Language to the Farsi. It was later translated from Farsi into Arabic during the Islamic period by `Abd Allah ibn al-Muqaffa`(15). This is a book of noble purpose and great practical worth.
That which has reached us from their work on numbers is "H.is?b al-Ghubar" (Dust-board Arithmetic) (16) which was simplified by Ab? Ja`far Muh.ammad ibn M?s? al-Khuwarizmi. This method of calculating is the simplest, fastest, and easiest method to understand and use, and has a remarkable structure. It is a testimony to the intelligence of the Indians, the clarity of their creativity, and the power of their inventiveness.
That which has reached us from the discoveries of their clear thinking and the marvels of their inventions is the (game) of chess. The Indians have, in the construction of its cells, its double numbers, its symbols and secrets, reached the forefront of knowledge. They have extracted its mysteries from supernatural forces. While the game is being played and its pieces are being maneuvered, there appear the beauty of structure and the greatness of harmony. It demonstrates the manifestation of high intentions and noble deeds, as it provides various forms of warnings from enemies and points out ruses as well as ways to avoid dangers. And in this, there is considerable gain and useful profit.
Of the Indian scientists, who are knowledgeable in the shape of the physical universe and in the composition of the celestial spheres and the movement of stars, we have heard of Kanka al-Hindi (the Indian) (17). Ab? Ma`sher Ja`far bin Muh.ammad bin 'Umar al-Balkhi (787-886 A.D.) had mentioned in his book "al-Ul?f" (the Thousands) (18) that this scientist is considered a leader in his knowledge of astronomy by all the Indian scientists of the past. I have received no information as to when or where he lived or anything about his work or his life except what I have just mentioned.
http://www.infinityfoundation.co ... _spain_frameset.htm
Author: gotohell Time: 2008-2-14 09:53 PM Subject: Archaeologists unearth 2,500-year-old city, Sishupalgarh near Bhubaneshwar
ARCHAEOLOGISTS have dug out the remains of a 2,500-year-old city - believed to be bigger than classical Athens - from under the ruins of an ancient fort in India's eastern state of Orissa.
Eighteen pillars were found among the remnants of the grand city at Sishupalgarh, a ruined fort first discovered six decades ago, the Times of India newspaper reported.
Sishupalgarh lies on the outskirts of Orissa's main city of Bhubaneshwar.
The findings of the team of archaeologists from India and the United States include the debris of household pottery and terracotta ornaments showing that the city's inhabitants led an advanced lifestyle.
The site is "the most visible standing architectural monument discovered in India so far," Monica Smith, head archaeologist from the University of California who was part of the 12-member team that conducted the excavation, told the newspaper.
"It's a huge city that existed about 2,500 years ago. The city had four gateways and could have housed up to 25,000 people. Even classical Athens had only 10,000 people," another archaeologist, RK Mohanty, was quoted by the newspaper as saying.
Scientists said the city was an important one, with well-built walls and a big expanse.
The pillars uncovered during the excavation work were part of a gigantic structure and probably used for public gatherings or special functions.
However, it was not clear how such a huge city was destroyed, researchers said, adding that information about the ancient city would be gathered with the help of fresh data and findings.
http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,23195459-663,00.html
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-3-14 06:46 AM
India�s Contributions to Mankind and World Progress
IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
India had never invaded or occupied any country in the last 1000 years of known human history.
India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Worshipping and practicing a religion known to human kind was also conceptualised in India.
Indians invented the numerical system and used in day-to-day life even before the Romans and Greeks did.
The number �Zero� was invented and used by Mathematician Aryabhatta. Without the �Zero�, on which ultimately rests the binary code, based on which all computer softwares including the Internet and advanced technologies were made.
The world's first formal university was established in the ancient city of Takshila in 700 BC. More than 10,500 students from all over the world studied more than 60 subjects. In the 4th century BC, the University of Nalanda was built and it was one of the greatest achievements of ancient India in the field of education.
One of the world�s old and ancient Indian language, Sanskrit is the most suitable language for developing various computer software programmes.
India�s ancient and still in use medical system, Ayurveda is one of the world�s first formal medical system known to humans. This ancient knowledge system of medicine has gained global acceptance especially for alternative ways of preventive, curative and rejuvenate processes making life a more pleasurable experience. Also, Indians established the earliest school of medicine based on Ayurveda and natural medicine.
The art of navigation was developed and used in the river Sindh 5000 years ago in India. The word "Navigation" is derived from the Sanskrit word �NAVGATIH�.
The value of �
i� was first calculated by Mathematician Budhayana, and he explained the concept of what is now known as �ythagorean Theorem� today. In 1999, British scholars have officially published that Budhayan's works date back to the 6th Century, which is long before the European mathematicians.
Well known mathematical systems Algebra, trigonometry and calculus was used in India. Quadratic equations were created by Mathematician Sridharacharya in the 11th Century. The largest numbers the Greeks and the Romans used were 106 whereas Indians used numbers as big as 1053.
The earliest water reservoir for irrigation was built in Saurashtra region in India. According to the Saka King Rudradaman I, a beautiful lake called Sudarshana was constructed on the hills of Raivataka in Chandragupta Maurya's time.
The world famous board game Chess was invented in India.
Over 2,800 years ago, in India, Physician Sushruta, who is now regarded as �Father of Surgery� had successfully performed cataract removal, artificial limb replacement, caesarean operations, cosmetic and tumour surgeries. He is author of the book �Sushruta Samhita�, in which he describes over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and classifies surgery into 8 categories. He may be world�s first surgeon to master the art of anaesthesia, human anatomy, genetics and immunity.
The place value system, the decimal system was developed in India dating back to at least 100 BC.
The game Polo was originated played in Manipur, India.
Over 5000 years ago, when many cultures in the world were only nomadic forest dwellers, Indians had established formal civilised Harappan culture in Sindhu Valley, which is called Indus Valley Civilization today. It is home to the world's first planned cities, where every house had its own bathroom and toilet.
The solar year was calculated as 365.25875684 days by Astrologer Bhaskaracharya in the 5th century. He calculated the time taken by the earth to orbit the sun hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart.
The game of snakes & ladders was created by the 13th century poet saint Gyandev. It was originally called 'Mokshapat.' The ladders in the game represented virtues and the snakes indicated vices.
India is the birthplace of well known Yoga and Meditation. It has been developed and practised in India for more than 7,000 years.
Between 4th and 6th century AD, KamaSutra is an ancient Indian text on human sexual behavior, widely considered to be the standard work on love in Sanskrit literature was composed by Vatsyayana.
India was one of the first civilizations to successfully extract Iron from ore and quickly learnt how to cast huge structures with it - some of them surviving. Indians went on to invent the method to make steel.
Over 3500 years ago, whilst rest of the world were lumbering around in animal skins and itchy wool, the Indians were cultivating a plant and weaving it into a material that would revolutionise human life. That most important invention the Indians have given to the world is cotton and weaving. They also pioneered the art of printing and dyeing of cotton cloth in a staggering array of colours and invented the spinning wheel � Mechanisation of this simple device by Hargreaves and Arkwright led to the industrial revolution and turned Britain into a rich country.
IN TODAY�S MODERN WORLD
Hotmail is world's leading web based email program was created and developed by Mr.Sabeer Bhatia.
Pentium Processor chip (needs no introduction as 95% of the today's computers run on it) was created and developed by Mr.Vinod Dham.
The number of companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE), is more than 7,000, and is second only to New York Stock Exchange.
With 850 movies per year, India's film industry overshadows Hollywood.
India consumes a fifth of the world's gold output. There may be 150 tonnes of gold bought by Indians for personal use in the last 50 years.
Growing at 8.5% GDP per year now, in 25 years, India�s GDP on a Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) basis will be at the same level of the USA is at today.
Six Indian women have had won Miss Universe/Miss World titles over the past 10 years. No other country has won more than twice.
Bank deposits in India is nearly 50% of its GDP, among the highest in the world.
Indian Railways is the largest single rail network in the world. Indian Railways is the largest employer in the world, with a staff of 1.6 million.
India has the second-largest army in the world, nearly 1.6 million active service staff.
India is the world's premier centre for diamond cutting and polishing. Nine out of every 10 diamond stones sold in the world pass through India.
India is home to the world�s largest number of pharmaceutical companies.
India's Hero Honda company is the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer with production of 1.7m units.
India is now the global manufacturing hub for international carmakers Hyundai, Ford, Toyota, Honda and Nissan.
Other than US and Japan, India is the only country to have built a super computer indigenously.
It is the second-largest cement-producing country in the world, producing more than 140m tonnes per year.
Of the Fortune 500 companies, 420 outsource their software-related work to India.
India is the largest democracy with nearly 750 millions voters. Surprisingly, India is the first country in the world to use Electronic Voting Machines (EVM) in national elections.
India has the second-largest pool of scientists and engineers in the world.
India has the third-largest investor base in the world.
The Kumbh Mela festival, held every 12 years in the city of Allahabad, attracts 27 million people on the holy days in January, and 71 million over the course of the 6 weeks of the whole festival. This festival is the largest and oldest festival of any kind known to humans so far.
Perhaps the most popular of all India's culinary exports, the curry was recently named as the most popular dish in Britain. Curry derives it's name from 'kari', the Tamil word for sabzi (or vegetable). In some parts of the world, going for a 'curry and a beer' are an intrinsic part of a good 'night out'.
The holy Indian city of Varanasi, also known as Benares, is the oldest, continuously inhabited city in the world today for more than 10,000 years.
India is ranked the fifth country in the world in terms of satellite launches.
There are over 70,500 bank branches in India - among the highest in the world. The State bank of India is the world�s largest Bank in terms of branches.
India has the most number of post offices in the world.
First democratic country to elect a woman Prime Minister.
INTERESTING QUOTES ABOUT INDIA
We owe a lot to India and Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made - Albert Einstein.
India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend and the great grand mother of tradition - Mark Twain.
If there is one place on the face of the earth where all dreams of living humans have found a home from the very earliest days when we began the dream of existence, it is India - French scholar Romain Rolland.
Many of the developments in the science and technology that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India centuries ago - Grant Duff, British Historian of India
India was the motherland of our race and Sanskrit the mother of Europe's languages. India was the mother of our philosophy, of much of our mathematics, of the ideals embodied in christianity... of self-government and democracy. In many ways, Mother India is the mother of us all - Will Durant, American Historian 1885-1981.
Author: petera Time: 2008-3-14 10:14 AM Subject: Mangoes
The word mango is from the Tamil manga which entered English through Portugese.The best fruit in the
world.The word tamarind is from the Arabic tamar i hind or date of India.
Author: seneca Time: 2008-3-14 04:03 PM
Mango - one of India's - and the world's! - GREATEST inventions! World - did you HEAR that?
Author: gotohell Time: 2008-3-15 06:47 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by seneca at 2008-3-14 16:03
Mango - one of India's - and the world's! - GREATEST inventions! World - did you HEAR that?
Yeah, but little Britain had nothing of it's own. It stole everything that it now has. It had no potatoes for its fish and chips, no tomatoes, no exotic fruits, nothing!
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-3-15 09:21 PM Subject: 354 - buddy35
QUOTE:
India had never invaded or occupied any country in the last 1000 years of known human history
Perhaps you want to write it this way 
India had never invaded or occupied any country in the last 1000 years of known human history except Pakistan, Bangladesh, Napal, Srilanka
QUOTE:
Following is the record India¡¯s state terrorism:
TERRORISM AGAINST PAKISTAN
India has been involved since long in covert and overt terrorist operations to destabilize Pakistan. Over the years, thousands of incidents of bomb explosions and terrorism have taken place in Pakistan, in which hundreds and thousands of innocent people have been killed, scores injured or maimed for life. In the year 2000, as many as 252 persons were killed and 596 injured while in 2001, about 189 persons were killed and 360 injured in different incidents of Indian sponsored terrorism throughout Pakistan.
In addition to aiding and abetting terrorism and sabotage in the neighboring countries, and financing and training terrorist groups, different Indian governments also killed their own people to put the blame on Pakistan.
A day before the arrival of the US President Bill Clinton on March 20, 2000, the Indian intelligence agencies killed 36 Sikhs in Chattissinghpura in Occupied Kashmir, and blamed Pakistan to win support and sympathy of Bill Clinton, and get Pakistan condemned. But Allah exposed the nefarious conspiracy. When Occupied Kashmir Chief Minister Dr. Farooque Abdullah ordered a judicial probe into the incident and appointed Justice Ratnaval Pandian, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee stopped him from inquiry (Frontline, December 18, 2000).
On August 1, 2000, over 100 Hindu pilgrims were massacred in Occupied Kashmir, when they were going for Amarnath Yatra, and the Kashmiri freedom fighters were blamed for it. A campaign to malign Pakistan was also launched under the pretext that Pakistan was supporting the freedom fighters. According to General J.R. Mukherjee Commission Report, the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) was involved in the massacre. But this report was not published in ¡®best national interest.¡¯ Moreover, L.K. Advani, Indian Interior Minister, gave a clean chit to Hindu Jagran Manch on January 26, 1999 for participation in elections, although its important member Dara Singh had burned alive an Australian missionary Graham Staines and his two sons.
On October 1, 2000, Indian agencies staged the drama of a terrorist attack on the Srinagar Legislative Assembly, which claimed 30 lives. But its own nationals, who said that they had seen the Indian police firing at the assembly staff, exposed the drama. On October 4, 2001 India staged the hijack drama of its passenger plane at the Mumbai airport bound for New Delhi. But its designs failed within hours forcing the Indian authorities to admit that ¡®it was just a training exercise.¡¯
On December 13, 2001 India staged the gory drama of a terrorist attack on its Parliament in New Delhi, and immediately put the blame on Pakistan to get it clubbed together with terrorist states. India has spurned Pakistan¡¯s demand to produce concrete evidence, and dismissed its suggestion to have a joint investigation to prove terrorism by some militant groups. Instead, Pakistan is being pressurized by ¡®certain quarters¡¯ to hand over the so-called terrorists India. Which is an insult to Pakistan¡¯s sovereignty and dignity
TERRORISM AGAINST SRI LANKA:
India has been supporting Liberation Tamil Tigers Elam guerrilla fighters, to create a Tamil state in Sri Lanka through its intelligence agency RAW since 1980¡¯s. The RAW set up 30 training camps in India to train Tamil guerrillas. The Indian army trained these guerrillas to lay mines and booby-traps, and the RAW poured in $ 3.2 million to finance the rebels, and provided, fuel, arms, ammunition, food, missiles, latest sophisticated weapons and logistical support to the LTTE guerrillas. According to ex-RAW chief R.N. Kao, India supported LTTE in Sri Lanka to crush Sri Lanka¡¯s efforts to establish its sovereignty.
During the rule of former Sri Lankan President J. R. Jayewardene, the economic and foreign policies of Sri Lanka were perceived by India as geo-political and geo-strategic threat. Jayewardene is on record to have revealed that he had to abandon military operation to regain control of Jaffna Peninsula in May 1987, when India threatened to foil the Sri Lanka¡¯s effort to take back Jaffna. According to Jayewardene, the then Indian High Commissioner N.K. Dixit had ¡°personally informed Lalith Athlathmudali, the then Minister of National Security, that New Delhi will not permit Sri Lankan army to reoccupy Jaffna. According to Indian newspapers, Indian Defense Minister George Fernandes has been a vocal supporter of LTTE, which means supporting insurgency in Sri Lanka.
TERRORISM AGAINST BHUTAN:
India has also been accusing Bhutan of supporting Indian guerrilla groups United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) and National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). On September 1, 1994, the Indian army crossed into Bhutan to track down ULFA and NDFB guerrillas claiming that permission of the Bhutanese government had been acquired. But the Foreign Minister of Bhutan denied India seeking any permission, and termed a blatant aggression. Since then the India army has crossed into Bhutan hundreds of times, but neither the United Nations nor any civilized country took notice of it. In addition, India repeatedly sent troops to Maldives ostensibly for protection of the governments there.
TERRORISM IN INDIAN HELD KASHMIR:
More than 70,000 Kashmiris have been killed since 1989. In the year 2001 alone, 4677 Kashmiris were killed, out of which 682 were murdered while in custody; 519 women were raped; 2,395 minor children were killed, 6,058 persons were unlawfully taken into custody, and 8002 persons were tortured in the so-called investigation cells set up under Indian military. Besides, the Indian forces burned down 170 shops and houses.
INTERNAL RECORD OF THE WORST VIOLATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS:
Over the years, more than 100,000 Sikhs have been slained, 950 women killed after rape, 25,000 dead bodies have been torched after being declared unclaimed, 2,000 mosques, 300 churches, 35 Gurdawaras and a considerable number of Pagodas have been demolished and replaced with Hindu temples. The great Mughal monument, Taj Mahal has also been vandalized; the Indian Supreme Court took notice of the incident, but the culprits were never arrested.
This irrefutable record makes it abundantly clear that India is the biggest terrorist in the region. Every member country of the SAARC is pleased with Pakistan, but they have serious complaints against India. They want an end to this terrorism so that the region could enjoy lasting peace.
In view of these facts, the PML (N) appeals to the United Nations and the United States and its allies to immediately adopt effective measures to curb Indian terrorism in the region, so that stable, durable and long-lasting peace and tranquility could be ensured in South Asia.
During the rule of Pakistan Muslim League (N) and other civil governments, India could not dare to dictate Pakistan as it is now dictating. The PML (N) demands that General Pervez Musharraf demilitarize all the civil institutions, and relinquish all self-assumed responsibilities and go home. There is still time for his honorable exit; therefore he is advised to avail of the opportunity. The PML (N) believes that his exit will enable an elected government to lead the nation out of its present difficulties with honor and dignity
Then
QUOTE:
India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Worshipping and practicing a religion known to human kind was also conceptualised in India
And also a death place for Buddhism and Sikhism 
Remmember ? Why Buddhism disappeared from India and the mass killing of Sikh in Golden Tample 
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-3-15 09:35 PM Subject: 354 - buddy35
QUOTE:
India had never invaded or occupied any country in the last 1000 years of known human history
And why only 1000 years ? why not 3000 years or through out the known history ?
And the last one thousand years starts from 1907. Was India one country from 1907 till now ?
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-3-15 09:39 PM Subject: 354 - buddy35
Well few good links, which are worth reading.
The History of Algebra
Article from the 1911 Encyclopedia
By Melissa Snell, About.com
http://historymedren.about.com/od/aentries/a/11_algebra.htm
The father of algebra
December 21, 2005
http://www.1001inventions.com/in ... p;intMTEntryID=2740
I will prefer to read these two articles before posting more lies here. You nut
Author: seneca Time: 2008-3-15 10:58 PM
Go To Hell's Angel and Saatchee at each other's throat this time...
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-3-15 11:20 PM Subject: 354 - buddy35
QUOTE:
Go To Hell's Angel and Saatchee at each other's throat this time...
Ooe you so jalious of me
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-3-15 11:26 PM Subject: 354 - buddy35
And one more question buddy
As the word hindustan is derived from the persian word hindu, which itself derived from the word Sindho(The province of Sindh, Pakistan. Also in sunskrit, the name of indus river falls from mountains in north Pakistn to the sea). Why you always call youself as Hindu. As this term is also in use ethically. Which means the Muslims, Jews, Christians, Buddhist and Sikhs in South Asia are also Hindu. And if this is true then what is the base/name of your religion, which you name is Hinduism, while hinduism will be described as terminology to refer the norms of the society, where ppl of all religions living ? What is the controversy into this. Can you explain ?
Author: petera Time: 2008-3-16 01:16 PM Subject: Algebra
I'm not quite sure what the controversy is about.The word algebra comes from the title of the book
by al Kwarizmi.The Arabs learned their mathematics from India and made their own significant
contributions.There was a lot of interaction between the Indians and the Arabs.It is fact that the numerals
in use everywhere on Earth originated in India,as did basic arithmetic.The first Indologist was the
Arab al Biruni.
I think energy would be best spent by attacking the common enemy of all the world's people,The West.
These hounds have enriched themselves at the expense of Asia's great nations and the inhabitants
of the Americas and Africa,destroying whole populations,cultures and animal and plant species as they
went.
India is not now an independant country.Neither is any other I can think of.India's intelligence agencies
may well be involved in destabilising it's neighbours.It would be doing this on orders from our common
master and tormentor - the West.Anyone familiar with Indian history knows how the British exploited
ethnic divisions to conquer and loot India and keep it's people divided for its advantage.
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-3-16 09:06 PM Subject: petera
QUOTE:
Algebra
I'm not quite sure what the controversy is about.The word algebra comes from the title of the book
by al Kwarizmi.The Arabs learned their mathematics from India and made their own significant
contributions.There was a lot of interaction between the Indians and the Arabs.It is fact that the numerals
in use everywhere on Earth originated in India,as did basic arithmetic.The first Indologist was the
Arab al Biruni.
I think energy would be best spent by attacking the common enemy of all the world's people,The West.
These hounds have enriched themselves at the expense of Asia's great nations and the inhabitants
of the Americas and Africa,destroying whole populations,cultures and animal and plant species as they
went.
India is not now an independant country.Neither is any other I can think of.India's intelligence agencies
may well be involved in destabilising it's neighbours.It would be doing this on orders from our common
master and tormentor - the West.Anyone familiar with Indian history knows how the British exploited
ethnic divisions to conquer and loot India and keep it's people divided for its advantage
Your analysis of world problems is fare enough. But seems to me like need to be polished further. This is not the east or the west. This is those nuts, who are in charge, whether they are Muslims, Christians, Jews or whatever. Remmember the suffering by Pakistan by Afghanistan. As the Afghanis are the only nation in the world, which fired MISSLES over Pakistan, the Scud Missles and once they were near to destroy the whole cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad when the Scud missle landed few hundred yards away from Wah Ordinance factories. And this is not it, one of the prominent figure in Afghan gov had hijacked the school bus from Pashawar and that had screwd up the situation in Pakistan. Same is the case with those bastereds sitting in Christian and Jew schools as leaders. And India too. As it has an habbit of interfaring in other countries. We have to fight against these nuts collectively. Not against the nations, society or against the ppl.
Well, I am looking this thread from long time but have some concerns so did not contributed it. To express my concerns, I will have to do some research, for which I have no time at the moment. But the question raised above is very critical. If the word Hindu is reffered to the ppl living in South Asia. Than the Muslims living in India are also Hindu. In this case what is the indentity of the religion, normally reffered is Hinduism ?
Author: seneca Time: 2008-3-17 10:23 AM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by petera at 2008-3-16 13:16
I'm not quite sure what the controversy is about.The word algebra comes from the title of the book
by al Kwarizmi.The Arabs learned their mathematics from India and made their own significant
co ...
spend energy on attacking the rich West who have enriched themselves at the expense of great Asian nations...
But not all Asian nations are great; one of the greatest is Israel. Greater than big India.
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-3-17 04:17 PM
QUOTE:
But not all Asian nations are great; one of the greatest is Israel. Greater than big India
And there is no doubt into it. 
As Indians are poor and ignorant ppl, unlike Israelis. Who are educated and well focused. As all of them recently moved in Israel They clearly know the purpose of their lives. On the other hand. Indians, as a well establised and well organised society, are not very much worried about their existance and survival So don't have to effort for the things, Israelis are fighting for
Author: petera Time: 2008-3-18 09:57 AM Subject: Israel
Can't tell the truth about Israel and it's treatment of the Palestinians.Tried it.Was censored totally.
Author: doberman Time: 2008-3-18 11:51 AM
>>>I think energy would be best spent by attacking the common enemy of all the world's people,The West.<<<
By Petera.
West are not people?
You know, we are all free to have our conspiracy theories, which are true or not. My conspiracy theory tells me that this above is too close to another forumite to be a coincidence.
Author: petera Time: 2008-3-18 12:19 PM Subject: al Biruni
al Biruni was a Tajik,not Arab.The error is regretted.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab% ... C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-3-18 05:18 PM
QUOTE:
West are not people?
You know, we are all free to have our conspiracy theories, which are true or not. My conspiracy theory tells me that this above is too close to another forumite to be a coincidence
Yes they are also ppl. So we need to distinguish between the comman and innocent ppl and the war mongers.
Author: petera Time: 2008-3-26 06:03 AM Subject: Malik e maidan
http://diksoochi.blogspot.com/20 ... malik-e-maidan.html
This is probably the largest bronze cannon ever cast.I was reading the memoirs of the emperor Jahangir
recently and was interested to learn that one of his brothers had a near hit from a stone cannon ball
fired from this gun.
Bijapur doen't get much international tourism.People prefer junk consumerist destinations.
Author: petera Time: 2008-3-26 02:29 PM Subject: Gol Gumbaz
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gol_Gumbaz
One of the world's largest unsupported domes on this mausoleum.
Author: petera Time: 2008-3-28 07:52 AM Subject: Ibrahim Rauza
http://www.travelblog.org/Photos/22663.html
Ibrahim Adil Shah was noted for his efforts for communal harmony and understanding.
Author: sacrifyyou Time: 2008-4-9 02:17 AM Subject: Indians also reached moon before Americans
This is not the joke
Image Attachment:
Indians on Moon 01.jpg (2008-4-9 02:17 AM, 34.8 K) / Download count 40
http://bbs.chinadaily.com.cn/attachment.php?aid=78139
Author: sacrifyyou Time: 2008-4-9 02:18 AM Subject: Indians also reached moon before Americans
This is known to the world............
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But NASA has released only half of the Picure taken.............
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Now see the original Full Picture .................. !!!!!
Author: sacrifyyou Time: 2008-4-9 02:19 AM Subject: Indians also reached moon before Americans
Image Attachment:
Indians on Moon 02.jpg (2008-4-9 02:19 AM, 64.36 K) / Download count 44
http://bbs.chinadaily.com.cn/attachment.php?aid=78140
Author: petera Time: 2008-4-9 10:55 AM Subject: Moon Hoax
I think it is unlikely that anyone has walked the surface of the moon.See posts 255 and 256 in the
Pigs Heads thread.
Author: zhiran Time: 2008-4-9 11:06 AM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by petera at 2008-4-9 10:55
I think it is unlikely that anyone has walked the surface of the moon.See posts 255 and 256 in the
Pigs Heads thread.
It's not surpising to see Petera writing on his favorite topic - Indian inventions.
After all inventing information or perhaps disinformation on a variety of topics, notably India and Zimbabwe is definitely his forte.
Perhaps we should change the thread title to 'Inventions, Discoveries & Other Creations' instead?
Author: petera Time: 2008-4-10 01:14 PM Subject: Disinformation and inventions
I presume you are a Murdoch/NWO supporter,Zhiran ? Why do you admire the FOXY fuhrer ? And do you
believe everything he says ?
Author: caringhk Time: 2008-4-10 01:29 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by petera at 2008-4-10 13:14
I presume you are a Murdoch/NWO supporter,Zhiran ? Why do you admire the FOXY fuhrer ? And do you
believe everything he says ?
what does his 30 posts tells U ???
So FOXY is n't it
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-4-13 02:39 AM
QUOTE:
Moon Hoax
I think it is unlikely that anyone has walked the surface of the moon.See posts 255 and 256 in the
Pigs Heads thread.
But Indians can do that too. They are grea
Author: gotohell Time: 2008-4-20 07:24 AM
India taught Arabs science
Pioneer, Op-Ed, 7 Feb., 2008
Second Opinion: Priyadarsi Dutta
Under the Abassid Caliphate in Baghdad (750-1258), the efflorescence of Islam's scientific genius was not as indigenous a development as Jim Al-Khalili claims in "Islam's forgotten geniuses" (February 3). "There is a certain analogy between civilisations and infectious disease. Both pass from one community to another, and whenever one breaks out, one of our first thoughts is, where did the infection come from?" said De Lacy O'Leary (How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs).
O'Leary reminds us that West Asia had long been exposed to Greek science and scholarship. Following Alexander's victory, the region became a part of the Seleucid empire. Greek science passed on to Arab hands through Christian Syriacs: "The Christian Church in its earliest period was essentially a Hellenising force. Its language was Greek and its first outspread was amongst those who were Greek in speech and culture, if not in race."
O'Leary has dealt with the influence of Indian scholarship and science on Arabs. He, however, believed that Indian influence was actually a rehash of fundamental Greek science developed in the University of Alexandria. Contemporary researcher and accomplished doctor Premendra Priyadarshi, in his book Zero is Not the Only Story, argues that Alexandria's science resulted from transmission of Indian knowledge through Alexander's conquest. The transmission of Hindu knowledge to Baghdad was still well known.
Mohammed bin Qasim led the Arab conquest of Sindh in 712. They set up several Junûd and Amsâr (military and civil colonies) in Sindh like Mansura, Kuzdar, Kandabel, Baiza, etc. Arab scholars who had migrated to Baghdad during the Caliphate of Mansur (753-774) carried with them two Sanskrit books Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Khanda-khadyaka. Arabs learnt the first principles of scientific astronomy from these.
Arabs also learnt Hindu numerals and hence these were called Hindsâs. During the Caliphate of Harun Al-Rashid (786-808), Arab scholars came to India to study science. Hindu physicians were invited to occupy top positions in Baghdadi hospitals.
"It was India, not Greece" says EB Havell in Aryan Rule in India, "that taught Islam... its philosophy, esoteric religious ideals and... most characteristic expressions in literature, art and architecture."
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-4-22 06:40 AM
National Mission for Manuscripts
(Save Our Manuscript Wealth for India's Future)
http://namami.gov.in/
The National Mission for Manuscripts was launched in February 2003 by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India, to save this most valuable but less visible of our cultural inheritances.
An ambitious five-year project, the Mission seeks not merely to locate, catalogue and preserve India's manuscripts, but also to enhance access, spread awareness and encourage their use for educational purposes. Working with specially identified Manuscript Resource Centres (MRCs) and Manuscript Conservation Centres (MCCs) in states all over the country, the Mission has collected data on manuscripts located in a variety of places, from universities and libraries to temples, mathas, madrasas, monasteries and private collections.
The Mission also brings manuscripts and the knowledge they house to the public through lectures, seminars, publications and specially designed programmes for schoolchildren and university students.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-4-22 06:50 AM
Scholars catalog ancient manuscripts to preserve 4,000-year history of India
Rama Lakshmi, Washington Post
Sunday, June 26, 2005
(06-26) 04:00 PDT New Delhi -- In the walled quarters of the old city, a Sanskrit language scholar walks purposefully along the packed, narrow and twisting alleyways, jostling past rows of jewelry shoppers, cycle rickshaws, bullock carts and beggars.
When he comes upon an old temple with an ornately carved doorway, he stops, sweating profusely in the sweltering sun.
"Do you have any ancient handwritten manuscripts here?" Dilipkumar Rana, the scholar, asks in a whisper. The stunned temple manager nods. "The government is doing a survey of old manuscripts," Rana says.
"But I have very few left now," temple manager Jaipal Jain says. "I threw many old manuscripts into the river last year."
"Why?" Rana asks anxiously.
"I had put them in the attic. Last year during the monsoon, the ceiling leaked. And the water destroyed many of the manuscripts," Jain says, sighing. "White ants attacked some others."
And so it goes, as India's 30,000 manuscript hunters fan out nationwide, seeking the nation's heritage in old temples, madrassas, mosques, monasteries, libraries and homes.
Launched two years ago, the National Mission for Manuscripts is a five- year project to catalog for the first time India's ancient documentary wealth and ensure that basic conservation practices are followed to halt their rapid decay. Officials say that India is the largest repository of manuscripts in the world, with an estimated 5 million texts in hundreds of languages.
Linguistic scholars and history students involved in this adventurous hunt for ancient volumes use not only expertise but also social skills, coaxing and cultural sensitivity to gain access to manuscripts.
After Rana takes off his shoes and washes his hands, he prays at the shrine. Then Jain leads him to the temple's dimly lighted manuscript room. He opens a creaky steel cupboard and reveals rows of old texts, bundled in yellow cotton cloth. Rana cautiously holds some pages up to the window light to examine the writing.
"It is in Prakrit language," he says, referring to a popular dialect of classical Sanskrit, no longer spoken. "The period is early 1600s. It prescribes a model code of living for Jain monks," a religious order that arose with Buddhism in the sixth century B.C.
The manuscript project's officials say the nationwide survey will open a window to India's ancient knowledge systems: religion, astronomy, astrology, art, architecture, science, literature, philosophy and mathematics.
"We are creating a manuscript map of India. The survey will present new facets to our intellectual heritage," says Sudha Gopalakrishnan, chief of the National Mission for Manuscripts. The project will not take the volumes from their owners but merely document what is available and help in conservation.
"The key abstracts of all the ancient knowledge found in our manuscripts will be available digitally for the world to see," Gopalakrishnan says.
Art historians are eagerly watching this massive cataloguing process, hoping for new clues to India's past.
"What we find will answer many nagging doubts about our knowledge tradition," says Lokesh Chandra, an art historian and manuscript scholar. "For example, we came very close to modern mathematics in the 8th century. But what happened after that? Why was there a hiatus in the evolution of ideas in India? How did we miss the bus to the future?"
In the 18th century, some European scholars began translating ancient Sanskrit and Buddhist manuscripts and made them accessible to the world. Many valuable manuscripts were taken out of the country and are now in European libraries and private collections.
Chandra says unearthing the manuscripts will also forge national pride for India's 4,000-year history and will "give us a psychological boost for future advances."
The oldest manuscripts that India possesses are a set of sixth century Buddhist texts that were found buried in the hills of Kashmir about 60 years ago. In the last two years, the surveyors have found rare ancient Sanskrit and Arabic treatises on such subjects as diabetes, astrophysics, interpretation of dreams, surgical instruments, concepts of time and the art of war. A 400-year- old handwritten Koran was found in a locket measuring 3 inches.
But Gopalakrishnan says manuscripts are being lost at an alarming rate because of neglect and ignorance. Most ancient manuscripts, found on paper, palm leaves, birch bark, cloth, wood and stone, are languishing because of improper care in this humid, tropical and dusty country.
"By the time we find them, they are moth-eaten, edges falling apart, attacked by fungus," says Ritu Jain, a conservator with the manuscript project. She recently discovered a yellowing and brittle 18th century Arabic manuscript on a traditional Islamic healing procedure in a dusty, cobweb- filled corner of a college library in New Delhi.
"I shudder in pain when I hold them," she says. "Some pages are so fragile that they just become powder in our hands."
The manuscript mission also trains librarians, private collectors and temple priests in conservation, advising them to keep the documents wrapped in starch-free cotton and in a space free of dust and moisture. Basic training is also given in chemical conservation. But few homes and temples handle the religious manuscripts with reverence and ritual purity. Some also follow indigenous methods of preservation such as using margosa leaves, clove and black pepper.
On a recent morning, an Arabic scholar at the mission office received a letter from a New Delhi resident, Afzal-ur-Rahman, who wanted his decaying ancestral collection of Arabic literature examined by experts.
Later, as a scholar leafed through the frayed, fungus-infected pages of a book about the nuances of Arabic grammar, Rahman, 61, spoke of his great- grandfather, whose literary work was honored by a Mughal king in the early 1800s.
"I am emotionally attached to these manuscripts," he says. "It is a family heirloom. I never let anyone touch it. But it contains knowledge that must be shared with the world."
http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/articl ... /26/MNGIRDD4LL1.DTL
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-4-22 07:27 AM
[quote]¡°One of our major misfortunes is that we have lost so much of the world¡¯s ancient literature
¨C in Greece, in India and elsewhere... Probably an organized search for old manuscripts in
the libraries of religious institutions, monasteries and private persons would yield rich
results. That, and the critical examination of these manuscripts and, where considered
desirable, their publication and translation, are among the many things we have to do in
India when we succeed in breaking through our shackles and can function for ourselves.
Such a study is bound to throw light on many phases of Indian history and especially on the
social background behind historic events and changing ideas.¡±
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India[/quote]
http://www.namami.org/resourcecentres.htm
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-4-23 04:56 AM
GILGIT MANUSCRIPT
- PIECING TOGETHER FRAGMENTS OF HISTORY
by Gyan Marwah
The almost seventeen centuries old Gilgit Manuscript has been giving historians a hard time, as no one has yet been able to fully decipher it. The lamination of the manuscript by the National Archives of India sometime ago has once again put the limelight back on this all-important literature concerning India, Tibet, China, Japan and other neighbouring countries.
Sometime ago when the National Archives of India (NAI) laminated 3,366 pages and many fragments of the Gilgit Manuscript, literary circles of the world were euphoric.
And there was good reason for cheer. The almost seventeen centuries old Gilgit Manuscript has been giving historians a hard time, as no one has yet been able to fully decipher it. The process of lamination and preservation has once again put the limelight back on this all-important literature concerning India, Tibet, China, Japan and other neighbouring countries.
In fact in 1897 - 34 years before it was discovered - the Buddhist Text Society of Calcutta had published references to the Gilgit Manuscript saying that if it were ever to be found it would unravel the ancient history of several communities as it is considered to be the oldest Buddhist manuscript.
But how did India come to possess it? The story began some sixty years ago when a group of cattle grazers unearthed a box in the region of Gilgit [now part of Pakistan occupied Kashmir] in the then undivided Jammu & Kashmir state. Little did they realize that the box contained one of the world's oldest manuscripts which could hold the key to the exact evolution of Sanskrit, Buddhist, Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Tibetan literatures. Gilgit was then the major trade centre on the Silk Route.
For the cattle grazers, unearthing of this box was of no significance. The manuscript was hurriedly taken to the chambers of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu & Kashmir and the international media published special supplements to tell the world that history was in the making. Editorials said that it was world property and should be well protected and preserved by the Maharaja. It was also suggested that a combined international team of scholars be constituted to decipher it. Leading Buddhist scholars from all parts of the world also rushed to Gilgit to unravel the mysteries locked up in the box.
Authoritative Work
Known as the Gilgit Manuscript, or more appropriately the Naupur Manuscript [after the village where it was found in], the authoritative work is now under the possession of the National Archives of India. Airlifted under special instructions from Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, during the 1948 Indo-Pak conflict, the manuscript recently found a new lease to life when NAI laminated a number of its pages.
Opinions vary about the date of this manuscript. One branch of scholars says it was written in the second century AD., while another puts the date at somewhere between the sixth and seventh centuries.
That the manuscript has at all survived is partly attributed to the fact it has been written on bhoj patra (bark of the bhoj tree) which doesn't decay or decompose and partly because of the near-freezing temperatures of the Gilgit region where it was buried like a 'time capsule'.
Originally written in Pali text, the Gilgit Manuscript contains four sutras, with each leaf between ten and twelve feet in length and five feet in width. The main scripture is the Lotus Sutra which even today is an important scripture in Japan and deeply influences the cultural and political life of the country. Several researchers and scholars have attempted to transcribe the text but till date the manuscript has not been deciphered in its entirety.
Lokesh Chandra...Unlocking the mystery of the treasure trove.
Says Prof. Lokesh Chandra, renowned Buddhist scholar and director of International Academy of Indian Culture, who has put in several years of research on the manuscript," It will probably take another 50 years to understand it completely. Scholars from Germany, Japan and Korea are currently trying to decipher the text as sporadic translations in Sanskrit and Chinese have helped them get some idea of the missing links in the original texts."
The Gilgit Manuscript contains the texts on Vinay Vastu, the treatise on monastic discipline. There are texts on Ayurvedic medicines like Anna Panna Vidhi and Bhaisajya Guru Sutra. There are references to iconometry, folk tales, philosophy and culinary skills. It also has a chronological list of the various Buddhist Shahi kings of Gilgit.
Experts say that a Buddhist monk, Narendrayasa of the Northern Tshi dynasty translated it into Chinese in 557 A.D. But there is no trace of that now. Of the incomplete translations, one was made by Shih-sien-kun of the Sun dynasty in 420-479 A.D. Around the same period a third translation was done by Ngan-She-Kao.
From the different incomplete Chinese translations available it is evident that the original sutra of the manuscript was in existence even before 2nd century A.D. But in view of the fact that the earlier translations were of a shorter text, it may be inferred that the sutra in its original form was shorter.
According to Prof. Lokesh Chandra who has done a serialisation of the text, the Gilgit Manuscript has references of the three Buddhist Synods [meeting of religious heads]. This suggests a date sometime around or after the time of Emperor Kanishka. According to the Sanskrit texts, the third Synod was held during Kanishka's reign.
Some reference of the script and description of the sutras can also be found in an eight-volume serialisation of the manuscript done by Prof. Nalinaksha Dutt in the 50s. His work suggests that verses in the text are composed in Sanskrit and Prakrit languages. The vocabulary is derived from ancient Buddhist texts in Prakrit.
Grammatical Inflexions
Prof. Dutt's work also suggests that the grammatical inflexions are indiscriminately applied for the sake of metre and melody of verses. There are Sanskrit words with Prakrit inflexions and Prakrit words with Sanskrit inflexions. And often, there are Pali words with correct inflexions, but in the garb of Sanskrit.
Regarding the dialectical peculiarities of the text, Dutt says that though the language of the prose portion is Sanskrit it bristles with Buddhist religious and philosophical terms and uses Prakrit language quite liberally.
Prof. Dutt also suggests that the text's versified portion is extremely confusing as it disregards the elementary canons of grammar, meter, and even vocabulary. A sweet melody seems to be its chief aim and for this it sacrifices every essential condition of a language. It doesn't use convenient forms of verbs or singulars or plurals or masculine or feminine genders - all of which makes Prof. Dutt suspect that the author of the original text was a versatile linguist and could play around with languages and blend them together.
Though the grammatical and literature aspects of the text are gradually becoming more of historical interest in the contemporary world, what is of interest is the social relevance of some of the sutras mentioned in the manuscript. Experts feel that when the full text is deciphered a common thread will be found in the language and people of countries like India China, Japan, Thailand, Tibet and Korea which would have the potential of altering the very geo-political map of the region.
http://the-south-asian.com/Aug2004/Gilgit_manuscript.htm
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:28 AM
Modern Science and Ancient India
April 15, 2007 ¡ª Gurudev
¡°We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made.¡± - Albert Einstein
¡°The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of antiquity, Archimedes and Apollonius.¡± - Laplace
Every person aware of modern science if also well aware that mathematics is the soul of modern science. Computers, Medical equipments, missiles, reactors, automobiles, electronic equipments, economics, finance, banks every where we need mathematics.
Romans used to represent every number using its own unique symbol or a unscientific combination of symbols. This was where west started its mathematics only to be discarded later due to its impractical nature to do bigger calculations.
I,V,X were used to represent numbers till 49 and when they run out of symbols then L was used to represent 50, similarly C for hundred, D for 500, M for thousand.. etc and etc
Any person who has worked using this roman number system knows very well that doing even a simple multiplication is a monumental task in this system. Higher mathematics like calculus, algebra, trigonometry are simply impossible here. I dont think a person has ever seen a simple linear equation in roman system!!!!
If the world had depended on western roman roots for modern science we would have been still in stone ages of science where the greatest achievement would have been counting the number of visible stars in the night sky !!!!!
Ancient Indians took a different approach and this was more than 3000-4000 years before romans invented roman numbers!!! While ancient Indians were working advanced mathematics (which finds its first reference in the ancient Vedas and is called as Vedic mathematics, this is part of the Atharva Veda which is all about engineering) the western world was still in stone age!!
The roots of modern mathematics is based on the concept of place value system, which we take for granted, but accoding to me is the most ingenious invention in mathematics. This is what Indians invented to have a complete scientific system of working with numbers. (In my series Alien Twist to God I have argued that this mathematics which has its roots in the vedas and the sanskrit language in which vedas are written in, both are of an alien origin, which is why sanskrit is the only human language capable of becoming a computer programming language)
In the place value system a limited set of symbols is taken and used to represent any and every possible number upto infinity down to minus infinity!!!
The number of symbols we select indicates the base of the system. We normally use base 10 which has 9 symbols aka 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Once we have the set of symbols the value of a symbol depends on the position of the symbol in the number. First position has a unit value, second position has a base value, third position has a base X base value, then base X base X base value and so on,..
So in base 10, first position has a value of 1 times the value of symbol, second position has a value of 10 times the value of symbol, third position has a value of 100 times the value of the symbol.. and so on¡.
So when we say 42 it represents a number whose value is 4 times 10 + 2 times 1 !!
We who are used to this system find it so simple!! The simplicity of this invention is what makes it so great bcos remember this is the root of whole modern mathematics and if this itself is complicated then we would be back to square one as romans!!!
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:29 AM
Once the place value system was invented Indian mathematicians had another difficulty. Suppose there was a place in the number which had no value at all!!!!
Consider the case of 100¡ here 1 should be used in third place which is base X base .. but then the two places down have no value!!!! This is why Indians invented ZERO!!!! In sanskrit Zero is called Shoonya, which means nothing.. presence of zero at a place means that place has no value in the number and should be ignored!!!
This in itself explains the great power of zero and its role in place value systems which makes it a key element of modern mathematics. Thats why once somebody said, I think it was Bernard Shaw, ¡®The greatest contribution of Indians to the world is Nothing¡¯
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:30 AM
Ancient Indians bcos of their strong mathematical basis becames champions in astronomy and related calculations. More than a thousand years before Giordano was burnt alive in the west by the church for claiming Sun is the center of the solar system, More than a thousand years before Galileo had to apologize for proposing the motion of the earth, Aryabhata in India had written great works on helio centric systems, and more than 3000-4000 years before aryabhata vedas had all this in their roots..
Then in modern times Buddhist missionaries from India spread this knowledge of mathematics and easy counting to the eastern world of China, Thailand, Japan etc ¡
Arab merchants who came to India to trade spices to the west, saw this simple way of doing counting more easier than roman system and adopted the same and also spread it to the west, this is the reason them modern base 10 system symbols are called ¡®Hindu Arabic Numerals¡¯ meaning borrowed from the land of hindus and spread to the rest of the west by Arabs. After learning this system of mathematics, arab mathematician wrote the book ¡®Al Jabr¡¯ which gave way to modern algebra.
Still there are gaps in this whole system. Arab merchants learnt only the basic counting required to do business and spread it to the western world. And from there west developed its own mathematics based on these Indian roots where Newton¡¯s Calculus etc came into picture¡
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:30 AM
Unfortunately, west again had started looking at maths with a roman mindset for higher level of generalization and students today are taught partial differential equations which require pages together to solve. Indian approach of Vedic mathematics is purely mental mathematics and generally doesnt require pen and paper to solve problems. The approach is also completely different in Indian mathematics, there are more specific formulae than generic, while this means more to learn, but once a child is used to it, problems will be more easy to solve. For instance in multiplication using vedic mathematics, the formula to multiply a two numbers which end with 5 is different from an approach to solve two numbers which have even numbers in their units place!! MANY WESTERN SCHOOLS TODAY TEACH VEDIC MATHEMATICS IN THE NAME OF MENTAL MATHEMATICS WITHOUT GIVING THE ANCIENT INDIANS AND THE VEDAS THE DUE CREDIT THEY DESERVE, which I feel is a total hypocrisy on the teachers part.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:31 AM
However, every thing including modern calculus, pythagoras theorems etc were already developed and documented in ancient Indians mathematics with its roots in vedic mathematics and the Indian approach to calculus etc is quite different from that of western approach. Bhaskaracharya wrote Leelavati (a book named after his daughter) more than 1000 years before newton and has detailed explanations for problems of differential calculus and the theory of calculus itself !!!
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:31 AM
The historian Florian Cajori, one of the most celebrated historians of mathematics in the early 20th century, said ¡°Diophantus, the father of Greek algebra, got the first algebraic knowledge from India.¡±
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:32 AM
Even Pythagoras was familiar with the ancient Indian text of Upanishads. It is also said that he had visited India from where he picked up the hypotenuse theorem and spread it in the west, which today is given his name inspite of the fact that he never gave a proof of this theorem!!! Pythagorean theorem finds its first reference in the sulva sutras of Vedic mathematics which is more than 4000 years before pythagoras! And if pythagoras was familiar with Upanishads, there is no doubt that he would have also studied the related Vedas and Sulva Sutras..
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:32 AM
Herodotus (father of Greek history) wrote that the Indians were the greatest nation of the age. Megasthenes - who travelled extensively through India in the 4th C. B.C also left extensive accounts that paint India in highly favorable light (for that period).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:33 AM
Panini who lived around 500 BC has mentioned in his works about boolean logic and the use of the operator null. Panini was an expert in language theory and has written extensively on describing Meta Syntax used to describe context free grammars which is used while defining modern computer programming languages. Hence the modern Backus Naur form BNF is also referred to as Panini Backus Form !
The ancient Chinese mathematics also has its roots in the Indian mathematics which was spread to China by Indians along side spreading Buddhism. There is an article in my site on the ancient Chinese proof of Pythagoras theorem
In an essence ancient India is both the spiritual and scientific mentor of modern world. Note that even the christian teachings by Jesus have its roots in Buddhism (Buddha lived in ancient India 400 years before Christ and any person who has studied the preachings of both Buddha and Christ will find obvious resemblance in both). It is also said that Jesus studied one of the ancient Indian univeristies Takshashila I think where he learnt the buddhist teachings. I had read some works which had done extensive research on this subject indicating Christ name in the list of students at one of the buddhist monestaries in Ladakh region of India.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:34 AM
Panini who lived around 500 BC has mentioned in his works about boolean logic and the use of the operator null. Panini was an expert in language theory and has written extensively on describing Meta Syntax used to describe context free grammars which is used while defining modern computer programming languages. Hence the modern Backus Naur form BNF is also referred to as Panini Backus Form !
The ancient Chinese mathematics also has its roots in the Indian mathematics which was spread to China by Indians along side spreading Buddhism. There is an article in my site on the ancient Chinese proof of Pythagoras theorem
In an essence ancient India is both the spiritual and scientific mentor of modern world. Note that even the christian teachings by Jesus have its roots in Buddhism (Buddha lived in ancient India 400 years before Christ and any person who has studied the preachings of both Buddha and Christ will find obvious resemblance in both). It is also said that Jesus studied one of the ancient Indian univeristies Takshashila I think where he learnt the buddhist teachings. I had read some works which had done extensive research on this subject indicating Christ name in the list of students at one of the buddhist monestaries in Ladakh region of India.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:34 AM
Kerala in India is the root of modern martial arts. The Keralean Kalaripayat is the world¡¯s oldest form of martial arts and is practiced in Kerala state of India. It was transmitted to China by a sage named Boddhidharma in the 5th century. The Chinese called him Po-ti-tama. He taught this art in a temple. This temple is today known as the Shaolin temple. Thus Judo, Karate, Kung Fu and other similar marshal arts which are today identified with the far-east actually originated from India !
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:35 AM
It is known history that when Ottoman turks captured constantinople there by blocking the land based route to India from Europe, this disturbed the entire Europe which depended on India extensively for trade for all items ranging from spices to diamonds to garments to what not. Till 1896 India was the only source of diamonds to the entire world! Unable to trade with India due to locking of the land route by turks, european nations started a race to discover a sea route to India and great sailors like columbus, vasco da gama, amerigo vespucci all set out from spain, portuguese etc to discover a sea route to India and this is how Columbus ended up discovering modern american continent (named after Amerigo who landed up in main land of the continent). In other words the modern super power america was introduced to the rest of the world, courtesty India!!! Columbus thought he had landed in the east coast of India when he discovered America and thats why the native americans are called Red Indians !!!!
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 09:36 AM
Severus Sebokt of Syria in 662 BC said ¡°I shall not speak here of the science of the Hindus, who are not even Syrians, and not of their subtle discoveries in astronomy that are more inventive than those of the Greeks and of the Babylonians; not of their eloquent ways of counting nor of their art of calculation, which cannot be described in words - I only want to mention those calculations that are done with nine numerals. If those who believe, because they speak Greek, that they have arrived at the limits of science, would read the Indian texts, they would be convinced, even if a little late in the day, that there are others who know something of value¡°
¡°The Constructions and these tables imply a great knowledge of geometry, arithmetic and even of the theoretical part of astronomy. But what, without doubt is to be accounted, the greatest refinement in this system, is the hypothesis employed in calculating the equation of the centre for the Sun, Moon and the planets that of a circular orbit having a double eccentricity or having its centre in the middle between the earth and the point about which the angular motion is uniform. If to this we add the great extent of the geometrical knowledge required to combine this and the other principles of their astronomy together and to deduce from them the just conclusion;the possession of a calculus equivalent to trigonometry and lastly their approximation to the quadrature of the circle, we shall be astonished at the magnitude of that body of science which must have enlightened the inhabitants of India in some remote age and which whatever it may have communicated to the Western nations appears to have receied another from them¡.¡± - John Playfair
http://hitxp.wordpress.com/2007/04/15/modern-science-and-india/
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 05:59 PM
Ed u c a t i o n i n A n c i e n t In d i a
QUOTE:
He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind, must have his senses under control, like spirited steeds controlled by a charioteer." says the Katha Upanishad (iii, 6).
From the Vedic age downwards the central conception of education of the Indians has been that it is a source of illumination giving us a correct lead in the various spheres of life. Knowledge, says one thinker, is the third eye of man, which gives him insight into all affairs and teaches him how to act.
(Subhi----aratnasandhoha p. 194
A single feature of ancient Indian or Hindu civilization is that it has been molded and shaped in the course of its history more by religious than by political, or economic, influences.
The fundamental principles of social, political, and economic life were welded into a comprehensive theory which is called Religion in Hindu thought. The total configuration of ideals, practices, and conduct is called Dharma (Religion, Virtue or Duty) in this ancient tradition. From the very start, they came, under the influence of their religious ideas, to conceive of their country as less a geographical and material than a cultural or a spiritual possession, and to identify, broadly speaking, the country with their culture.
The Country was their Culture and the Culture their Country, the true Country of the Spirit, the 'invisible church of culture' not confined within physical bounds. India thus was the first country to rise to the conception of an extra-territorial nationality and naturally became the happy home of different races, each with its own ethno-psychic endowment, and each carrying its social reality for Hindus is not geographical, not ethnic, but a culture-pattern. Country and patriotism expand, as ideals and ways of life receive acquiescence. Thus, from the very dawn of its history has this Country of the Spirit ever expanded in extending circles, Brahmarshidesa, Brahmavarta, Aryavarta, Bharatvarsha, or Jambudvipa, Suvarnabhumi and even a Greater India beyond its geographical boundaries.
Learning in India through the ages had been prized and pursued not for its own sake, if we may so put it, but for the sake, and as a part, of religion. (It was sought as the means of self-realization, as the means to the highest end of life. viz. Mukti or Emancipation.
Ancient Indian education is also to be understood as being ultimately the outcome of the Indian theory of knowledge as part of the corresponding scheme of life and values. The scheme takes full account of the fact that Life includes Death and the two form the whole truth. This gives a particular angle of vision, a sense of perspective and proportion in which the material and the moral, the physical and spiritual, the perishable and permanent interests and values of life are clearly defined and strictly differentiated.
Of all the people of the world the Hindu is the most impressed and affected by the fact of death as the central fact of life. The individual's supreme duty is thus to achieve his expansion into the Absolute, his self-fulfillment, for he is a potential God, a spark of the Divine. Education must aid in this self-fulfillment, and not in the acquisition of mere objective knowledge.
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:05 PM
Introduction
It may be said with quite a good degree of precision that India was the only country where knowledge was systematized and where provision was made for its imparting at the highest level in remote times. Whatever the discipline of learning, whether it was chemistry, medicine, surgery, the art of painting or sculpture, or dramatics or principles of literary criticism or mechanics or even dancing, everything was reduced to a systematic whole for passing it on to the future generations in a brief and yet detailed manner.
University education on almost modern lines existed in India as early as 800 B.C. or even earlier. The learning or culture of ancient India was chiefly the product of her hermitages in the solitude of the forests. It was not of the cities. The learning of the forests was embodied in the books specially designated as Aranyakas "belonging to the forests." Indian civilization in its early stages had been mainly a rural, sylvan, and not an urban, civilization.
The ideal of education has been very grand, noble and high in ancient India. Its aim, according to Herbert Spencer is the 'training for completeness of life' and the molding of character of men and women for the battle of life.
The history of the educational institutions in ancient India shows how old is her cultural history. It points to a long history. In the early stage it is rural, not urban.
British Sanskrit scholar Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1854-1930) author of A History of Sanskrit Literature (Motilal Banarsidass Pub. ISBN: 8120800354) says "Some hundreds of years must have been needed for all that is found" in her culture.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:08 PM
The aim of education was at the manifestation of the divinity in men, it touches the highest point of knowledge.
In order to attain the goal the whole educational method is based on plain living and high thinking pursued through eternity.
As the individual is the chief concern and center of this Education, education also is necessarily individual. It is an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil. The relationship is inaugurated by a religious ceremony called Upanayana. It is not like the admission of a pupil to the register of a school on his payment of the prescribed fee.
The spiritual meaning of Upanayana, and its details inpsired by that meaning, are elaborated in many texts and explained below in the proper place. By Upanayana, the teacher, "holding the pupil within him as in a womb, impregnates him with his spirit, and delivers him in a new birth." The pupil is then known as Dvija, "born afresh" in a new existence, "twice born" (Satapatha Brahmana). The education that is thus begun is called by the significant term Brahmacharya, indicating that it is a mode of life, a system of practices.
This conception of education molds its external form. The pupil must find the teacher. He must live with him as in member of his family and is treated by him in every way as his son. The school is a natural formation, not artificial constituted. It is the home of the teacher. It is a hermitage, amid sylvan surrounding, beyond the distractions of urban life, functioning in solitude and silence. The constant and intimate association between teacher and taught is vital to education as conceived in this system. The pupil is imbibe the inward method of the teacher, the secrets of his efficiency, the spirit of his life and work, and these things are too subtle to be taught.
It seems in the early Vedic or Upanishadic times education was esoteric. The word Upanishad itself suggests that it is learning got by sitting at the feet of the master. The knowledge was to be got, as the Bhagavad Gita says, by obeisance, by questioning and serving the teacher.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:10 PM
The inscription: Dighatapasi sise anusasati, "the ascetic of long penance instructs the pupils." Some of the pupils are female rishis. The position of the pupils' fingers show counting called for in Sama Veda chanting.
(source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji).
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:12 PM
India has believed in the domestic system in both Industry and Education, and not in the mechanical methods of large production in institutions and factories turning out standardized articles.
It is these sylvan schools and hermitages that have built up the thought and civilization of India. As has been pointed out in the graphic words of the poet and Nobel prize laureate, Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941):
"A most wonderful thing was notice in India is that here the forest, not the town, is the fountain head of all its civilization. Wherever in India its earliest and most wonderful manifestations are noticed, we find that men have not come into such close contact as to be rolled or fused into a compact mass. There, trees and plants, rivers and lakes, had ample opportunity to live in close relationship with men. In these forests, though there was human society, there was enough of open space, of aloofness; there was no jostling. Still it rendered it all the brighter. It is the forest that nurtured the two great ancient ages of India, the Vaidic and the Buddhist. As did the Vaidic Rishis, Buddha also showered his teaching in the many woods of India. The current of civilization that flowed from its forests inundated the whole of India."
"The very word 'aranyaka' affixed to some of the ancient treatises, indicates that they either originated in, or were intended to be studied in, forests."
(source: India: Bond Or Free? - By Annie Besant p. 94-95).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:13 PM
"In order to preserve the continuity of this national heritage and add to its richness, India built large institutions of higher learning from time to time. They served as the repositories of her spiritual, philosophical, scientific, artistic and literary achievements and as the media of transmission of this heritage to the future generations. But it was realized by the early Vedic seers that the educational institutions could only discharge their functions properly if they were isolated from the conflicting demands of the rough and tumble of the world. They, therefore, built their universities in forests, or in places of natural beauty. Nature softens the instincts of body and mind, which otherwise become harsh and aggressive when man lives in houses of brick and mortar. When man lives in the lap of nature, his emotional and mental life becomes pure and harmonious; he grows as a part of life that surrounds him. His inner strains and stresses are reduced to minimum, his mind is alert, his intuition awake. Ancient India, therefore, selected spots of natural beauty for locating its educational institutions."
(source: India: A synthesis of cultures ¨C by Kewal Motwani p. 131).
It is here, in these forest universities, as Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) has said, ' evolved the beginning of the sublime idealism of India.'
(source: Everyday Life in Ancient India - By Padmini Sengupta p. 161).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:16 PM
Rigvedic Education
The Rig Veda as the source of Hindu Civilization
The Rig Veda is established as the earliest work not merely of the Hindus, but of all Indo-European languages and humanity. It lays the foundation upon which Hindu Civilization has been building up through the ages. Broadly speaking, it is on a foundation of plain living and high thinking. Life was simple but though high and of farthest reach, wandering through eternity. Some of the prayers of the Rig Veda, like the widely known Gayatri mantram also found in Samaveda and Yajur veda touch the highest point of knowledge and sustain human souls to this day.
The Rig Veda itself exhibits an evolution and the history of the Rigveda is a history of the culture of the age. The Rig veda, in the form in which we have it now, is a compilation out of old material, a collection and selection of 1,017 hymns out of the vast literature of hymns which have been accumulating for a long period.
When the Rigvedic texts was thus fixed and appropriated for purposes of the Samhita, its editors had to think out the principles on which the hymns could be best arranged. These show considerable literary skill, originality of design, and insight into religious needs. First, it represents Rishis were chosen and their works were utilized to constitute six different Mandalas.
These Rishis are: 1. Vasishtha 2. Visvamitra 3. Vamadeva 4. Bharadvaja 5. Atri 6. Kanva 7. Gritsamada
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:18 PM
When the highest knowledge was thus built up by these Seers and revealed and stored up in the hymns, there were necessarily evolved the methods by which such knowledge could be acquired, conserved, and transmitted to posterity.
Thus every Rishi was a teacher who would start by imparting to his son the texts of the knowledge he had personally acquired and such texts would be the special property of his family.
Each such family of Rishis was thus functioning like a Vedic school admitting pupils for instruction in the literature or texts in its possession. The relations between teacher and taught was well established in the Rig Veda.
The methods of education naturally varied with the capacity of pupils.
Self-realization by means of tapas would be for the few.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:21 PM
The Rig Veda shows a lively sense of the immutable laws governing Creation.
Its best expression is iii. 56, I, a hymn of Visvamitra. It means that the Vratas or Cosmic Laws which are at the root of creation, operate for all time and regularly, which can never be violated by anyone however clever or wise.
There is no one in earth or heaven who by his power or supreme knowledge can set them at naught. "They cannot bend like mountains."
"Then at the beginning, before creation, there was neither Being nor non-Being. There was neither the atmosphere nor the heavens beyond. What did it contain? Where? And under whose direction? Were there waters, and the bottomless deep?"
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:25 PM
The Great Secret
Commenting on these Vedic hymns Count Maurice Maseterlinck in is book The Great Secret (Citadel Pub ASIN: 0806511559) says:
"Is it possible to find, in our human annals, words more majestic, more full of solemn anguish, more august in tone, more devout, more terrible? Where, from the depths of an agnosticism, which thousands of years have augmented, can we point to a wider horizon? At the very outset, it surpasses all that has been said, and goes farther than we shall even dare to go. No spectacle could be more absorbing than this struggle of our forefathers of five to ten thousand years ago with the Unknowable, the unknowable nature of the causeless Cause of all Causes. But of this cause, or this God, we should never have known anything, had He remained self-absorbed, had He never manifested Himself."
Thus it is, say the Laws of Manu, "that, by an alternation of awakening and repose, the immutable Being causes all this assemblage of creatures, mobile and immobile, eternally to return to life and to die." He exhales Himself, or expels His breath, throughout the Universe, innumerable worlds are born, multiply and evolve. He Himself inhales, drawing His breath, and Matter enters into Spirit, which is but an invisible form of Matter: and the worlds disappear, without perishing, to reintegrate the Eternal cause, and emerge once more upon the awakening of Brahma - that is, thousands of millions of years later; to enter into Him so it has been and ever shall be, through all eternity, without beginning, without cessation, without end."
"When the world had emerged from the darkness," says the Bhagavata Puranam, "the subtle elementary principle produced the vegetable seed which first of all gave life to the plants. From the plants, life passed into the fantastic creatures which were born of the slime in the waters; then, through a series of different shapes and animals, it came to Man." They passed in succession by way of the plants, the worms, the insects, the serpents, the tortoises, cattle, and the wild animals - such is the lower stage," says Manu again, who adds, "Creatures acquired the qualities of those that preceded them, so that the farther down its position in the series, the greater its qualities.
"Have we not here the whole of Darwinian evolution confirmed by geology and foreseen at least 6,000 years ago?
On the other hand, is this not the theory of Akasa which we more clumsily call the ether, the sole source of all substances, to which our science is returning? Is it true that the recent theories of Einstein deny ether, supposing that radiant energy - visible light, for example - is propagated independently through a space that is an absolute void. But the scientific ether is not precisely the Hindu Akasa which is much more subtle and immaterial being a sort of spiritual element or divine energy, space uncreated, imperishable, and infinite."
(source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji p. 17 and 49).
Author: tonyinbeijin Time: 2008-6-1 06:25 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by changabula at 2007-6-18 19:09
A thread to highlight the achievements of the great Indian civilization.
Ancient India is not typically a civilization that receives a lot of publicity about inventions. However, as with a ...
Ancient China contributes the world with so many invetions and discoveries,so believe China will regain prosperity and become a superpower ultimately.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:28 PM
Women as Rishis
The history of the most of the known civilizations show that the further back we go into antiquity, the more unsatisfactory is found to be the general position of women. Hindu civilization is unique in this respect, for here we find a surprising exception to the general rule. The further back we go, the more satisfactory is found to be the position of women in more spheres than one; and the field of education is most noteworthy among them.
There is ample and convincing evidence to show that women were regarded as perfectly eligible for the privilege of studying the Vedic literature and performing the sacrifices enjoined in it down to about 200 B.C.
This need not surprise us, for some of the hymns of the Rig Veda are the composition of twenty sage-poetesses.
Women were then admitted to fulfill religious rites and consequently to complete educational facilities. Women-sages were callee Rishikas and Brahmavadinis.
The Rig Veda knows of the following Rishikas 1.Romasa 2.Lopamudra 3.Apala 4. Kadru 5.Visvavara 6. Ghosha 7. Juhu 8. Vagambhrini 9. Paulomi 10 Jarita 11. Sraddha-Kamayani 12. Urvasi 12. Sarnga 14. Yami 15. Indrani 18. Savitri 19. Devajami 20. Nodha 21 Akrishtabhasha 22. Sikatanivavari 23. Gaupayana.
Sculpture showing Vaishanava Guru and his royal discipline at Konark, holding in his right hand a MS, with his attending guards shown below. (Now on display at the Victoria Albert Museum in London, England.)
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:29 PM
The Brahmavadinis were the products of the educational discipline of brahmacharaya for which women also were eligible.
Rig Veda refers to young maidens completing their education as brahmacharinis and then gaining husbands in whom they are merged like rivers in oceans. Yajurveda similarly states that a daughter, who has completed her brahmacharya, should be married to one who is learned like her.
A most catholic passage occurs in YajurVeda (xxvi, 2) which enjoins the imparting of Vedic knowledge to all classes, Brahmins and Rajanyas, Sudras, Anaryas, and charanas (Vaisyas) and women. No one can recite Vedic prayers or offer Vedic sacrifices without having undergone the Vedic initiation (Upanayana). It is, therefore, but natural that in the early period the Upanayana of girls should have been as common as that of boys.
The Arthava Veda (xi. 5.8) expressly refers to maidens undergoing the Brahmacharya discipline and the Sutra works of the 5th century B.C. supply interesting details in its connection. Even Manu includes Upanayana among the sanskaras (rituals) obligatory for girls (II.66). Music and dancing was also taught to them.
Brahmavadins used to marry after their education was over, some of them like Vedavati, a daughter of sage Kusadhvaja, would not marry at all.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:32 PM
Women in Education
Radha Kumud Mookerji (1884 -1964) Indian historian, has noted: "An important feature of this educational system should not be missed. The part taken in intellectual life by women like Gargi who could address a Congress of philosophers on learned topics, or like Maitreyi, who had achieved the highest knowledge, that of Brahma.
The Rigveda shows us some women as authors of hymns, such as Visvavara, Ghosha, and Apala."
(source: Hindu Civilization - By Radha Kumud Mookerji p. 111 Longmans, Green and Co. London 1936).
The Vedic women received a fair share of masculine attention in physical culture and military training. The Rigveda tells us that many women joined the army in those days.
A form of chariot race was one of the games most popular during the Vedic period. People were fond of swinging. Ball games were in vogue in those days by both men and women.
Apart from this, a number of courtyard games like" Hide and seek" and "Run and catch" were also played by the girls.
Playing with dice became a popular activity. The dices were apparently made of Vibhidaka nuts.
From the Rigveda, it appears that the Vedic Aryans knew the art of boxing.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:34 PM
Education in the Epics
Takshashila was a noted center of learning.
The story is told of one of its teachers named Dhaumya who, had three disciples named Upamanyu, Aruni, and Veda.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:37 PM
Hermitages
The Mahabharata tells of numerous hermitages where pupils from distant parts gathered for instruction round some far-famed teachers.
A full-fledged Asrama is described as consisting of several Departments which are enumerated as following:
1. Agnisthana, the place for fire-worship and prayers
2. Brahma-sthana, the Department of Veda
3. Vishnusthana, the Department for teaching Raja-Niti, Arthaniti, and Vartta
4. Mahendrasthana, Military Section
5. Vivasvata-sthana, Department of Astronomy
6. Somasthana, Department of Botany
7. Garuda-sthana, Section dealing with Transport and Conveyances
8. Kartikeya-sthana, Section teaching military organization, how to form patrols, battalions, and army.
The most important of such hermitage was that of the Naimisha, a forest which was like a university. the presiding personality of the place was Saunaka, to whom was applied the designation of Kulapati, sometimes defined as the preceptor of 10,000 disciples.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:40 PM
Naimisha
The most important of such hermitage was that of the Naimisha, a forest which was like a university. the presiding personality of the place was Saunaka, to whom was applied the designation of Kulapati, sometimes defined as the preceptor of 10,000 disciples.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:42 PM
Kanva
The hermitage of Kanva was another famous center of learning, of which a full description is given. It is situated on the banks of the Malini, a tributary of the Sarayu River.
It was not a solitary hermitage, but an assemblage of numerous hermitages round the central hermitage of Rishi Kanva, the presiding spirit of the settlement.
There were specialists in every branch of learning cultivated in that age; specialists in each of the four Vedas; in sacrificial literature and art; Kalpa-Sutras; in the Chhanda (Metrics), Sabda (Vyakarana), and Nirukta.
There were also Logicians, knowing the principles of Nyaya, and of Dialectics (the art of establishing propositions, solving doubts, and ascertaining conclusions).
There were also specialists in the physical sciences and art. There were, for example, experts in the art of constructing sacrificial altars of various dimensions and shapes (on the basis of a knowledge of Solid Geometry); those who had knowledge of the properties of matter (dravyaguna); of physical processes and their results of causes and their effect; and zoologists having a special knowledge of monkeys and birds.
It was thus a forest University where the study of every available branch of learning was cultivated.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:45 PM
The hermitage of Vyasa was another seat of learning. There Vyasa taught the Vedas to his disciples. Those disciples were highly blessed Sumantra, vaisampayana, Jamini of great wisdom, and Paila of great ascetic merit." They were afterwards joined by Suka, the famous son of Vyasa.
Among the other hermitages noticed by the Mahabharata may be mentioned those of Vasishtha and Visvamitra and that in the forest of Kamyaka on the banks of the Saraswati.
But a hermitage near Kurkshetra deserves special notice for the interesting fact recorded that it produced two noted women hermits. There "leading from youth the vow of brahmacharya, a Brahmin maiden was crowned with ascetic success and ultimately acquiring yogic powers, she became a tapassiddha", while another lady, the daughter not of a Brahmin but a Kshatriya, a child not of poverty but affluence, the daughter of a king, Sandilya by name, came to live there the life of celibacy and attained spiritual pre-eminence.
Hermitage of Rishi Bharadvaja at Prayaga, or at Atri at Chitrakuta; showing Rama, Lakshmana and Sita standing before the Rishi:
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:48 PM
Period of Panini
When we study how these institutions grew we find that students approached the learned souls for the acquisition of knowledge. Parents, too encouraged it and sent their boys to the institutions. When their number began to increase the institutions formed with these students began to grow gradually.
With the lapse of time these institutions turned into Universities and were maintained with the munificent gift of the public and the state. In this way many institutions were formed of which Taxila, Ujjain, Nalanda, Benares, Ballavi, Ajanta, Madura and Vikramsila were very famous.
Taxila was famous for medicine and Ujjain for Astronomy. Both were pre-Buddhist. Jibaka the well known medical expert and the state physician of the King of Magadha of the 6th century B.C. and Panini the famous grammarian of the 7th century B.C. and Kautilya, the authority on Arthasastra, of the 4th century B.C. were students of Taxila.
Education as revealed in the grammatical Sutras of Panini, together with the works of Katyayana and Patanjali. The account of education in the Sutra period will not be complete without the consideration of the evidence of the grammatical literature as represented in the works of Panini and his two famous commentators, Katyayana and Patanjali. Panini throws light on the literature of his times. Four classes of literature are distinguished.
Bhagiratha in Meditation - Pallava relief of 7-8th century A.D. at Mamallapuram. The Yogi (who was a king) appears to be petrified by his prolonged penance and has become a part of the rocks round him. His penance moves Goddess Ganga who melts and descends from Heaven to Earth, pouring out Her bounty in streams of plenty.
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:50 PM
There is evidence that girls have been admitted in Vedic schools or Charanas.
Panini refers to this specially. A Kathi is a female student of Katha school. There are hostels for female students and they are known as Chhatrisala. Each Charana or school has an inner circle of teachers known as Parisad. Their decisions on doubts about the reading and the meaning of Vedic culture are binding. Pratisakyas are said to be the product of such Parisad.
The academic year has several terms. Each term is inaugurated by a ceremony called Upakarnmana and ends by the Utsarga ceremony.
Holidays (Anadhyayas) are regularly observed on two Astamis (eight day of the moon) two Chaturdasis (fourteenth day of the moon), Amavasya, Purnima and on the last day of each of the four seasons, called Chaturmasi. Besides these Nitya (regular) holidays there are Naimittika (occasional) holidays due to accidental circumstances, eg. storms, thunder, rain, fog, fire, eclipses etc.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:57 PM
Universities of Ancient India
1. Takkasila (also known as Taxila): The Most Ancient University
Takkasila was the most famous seat of learning of ancient India. Takkasila was also the capital of Gandhara and its history goes back into hoary antiquity. It was founded by Bharata and named after his son Taksha, who was established there as its ruler. Janamejaya's serpent sacrifice was performed at this very place.
As a center for learning the fame of the city was unrivalled in the 6th century B.C. Its site carries out the idea held by the ancient Hindus of the value of natural beauty in the surroundings of a University. The valley is "a singularly pleasant one, well-watered by a girdle of hills."
The Jatakas tell us of how teachers and students lived in the university and the discipline imposed on the latter, sons of Kings and themselves future rulers though they might be! The Jatakas (No. 252) thinks that this discipline was likely "to quell their pride and haughtiness".
It attracted scholars from different and distant parts of India. Numerous references in the Jatakas show how thither flocked students from far off Benares, Rajagaha, Mithila, Ujjain, from the Central region, Kosala, and Kuru kingdoms in the North country.
The fame of Takkasila as a seat of learning was of course due to that of its teachers. They are always spoken of as being " world renowned" being "authorities", specialists, and experts in the subject they professed. Of one such teacher we read: "Youths of the warrior and brahmin castes came from all India to be taught the art by him"
Sending their sons a thousand miles away from home bespeaks the great concern felt by their parents in their proper education. As shown in the case of the medical student, Jivaka, the course of study at Takila extended to as many as seven years. Jataka No. 252 records how parents felt if they could see their sons return home after graduation at Taxila.
One of the archery schools at Taxila had on its roll call, 103 princes from different parts of the country. King Prasenajit of Kosala, a contemporary of the Buddha, was educated in the Gandhara capital.
Prince Jivaka, an illegitimate son of Bimbusara, spent seven years at Taxila in learning medicine and surgery.
Takshasila a Center for Higher Education:
The students are always spoken of as going to Takshasila to "complete their education and not to begin it."
They are invariably sent at the age of sixteen or when they "come of age".
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 06:59 PM
Different Courses of Study
"The Jatakas contain 105 references to Takshasila. "The fame of Takshasila as a seat of learning was, of course, due to that of its teachers. They are always spoken of as being 'world-renowned,' being authorities, specialists and experts in the subjects they professed. It was the presence of scholars of such acknowledged excellence and widespread reputation that caused a steady movement of qualified students from all classes and ranks of society towards Takshasila from different and distant parts of the Indian continent, making it the intellectual capital of India of those days. Thus various centers of learning in the different parts of the country became affiliated, as it were, to the educational center or to the central University of Takshasila, which exercised a kind of intellectual suzerainty over the world of letters in India." Takshashila was destroyed by the Huns in 455 A.D."
(source: India: A synthesis of cultures ¨C by Kewal Motwani p. 133).
The Jatakas constantly refer to students coming to Takkasila to complete their education in the three Vedas and the eighteen Sippas or Arts. Sometimes the students are referred to as selecting the study of the Vedas alone or the Arts alone. The Boddisatta (Buddha) is frequently referred to as having learned the three Vedas by heart. Takshila was famous for military training, wrestling, archery and mountain- climbing.
Science, Arts and Crafts:
The Jatakas mention of subjects under scientific and technical education. Medicine included a first hand study of the plants to find out the medicinal ones. Takkasila was also famous for some of its special schools. One of such schools was the Medical Schools which must have been the best of its kind in India.
It was also noted for its School of Law which attracted student from distant Ujjeni. Its Military School were not less famous, which offered training in Archery. Thus the teachers of Takkasila were as famous for their knowledge of the arts of peace as for that of war.
Much attention was paid to the development of social and cultural activities in all possible ways. Dancing and dramatic groups, singers and musicians and other artists were given encouragement and offered employment. During the Sangam epoch in South India, the three principal arts, Music, Dance and Drama were practiced intensively and extensively throughout the country, and the epic of Silappadikaram contains many references to the practice of these arts.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:00 PM
2. Mithila
Mithila, was a stronghold of Brahminical culture at its best in the time of the Upanishads, under its famous Philosopher-king Janaka who used to send our periodical invitations to learned Brahmins of the Kuru-Panchala country to gather to his court for purpose of philosophical discussions. Under him Eastern India was vying with North-Western India in holding the palm of learning. In those days, the name of the country was not Mithila but Videha. In the time of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and Buddhist literature, Mithila retained the renown of its Vedic days.
Its subsequent political history is somewhat chequered. When Vijaya Sen was King of Bengal, Nanyadeva of the Karnataka dynasty was King of Mithila in A.D. 1097. King Vijaya defeated him but was defeated by his son Gangadeva who recovered Mithila from him. This Karnataka Dynasty ruled Mithila for the period c. A.D. 115-1395, followed by the Kamesvara Dynasty which ruled between c. A.D. 1350-1515. It was again followed by another dynasty of rulers founded by Mahesvara Thakkura in the time of Akbar, and this dynasty has continued up to the present time.
Mithila as a seat of learning flourished remarkably under these later kings. The Kamesvara period was made famous in the literary world by the erudite and versatile scholar, Jagaddhara, who wrote commentaries on a variety of texts, the Gita, Devi-mahatmya, Meghaduta, Gita-Govinda, Malati-Madhava, and the like, and original treatises on Erotics, such as Rasika-Sarvasva-Sangita-Sarvasva.
The next scholar who shed luster on Mithila was the poet Vidyapati, the author of Maithili songs or Padavali generally. He has inspired for generations the later Vaishava writers of Bengal.
Mithila made conspicious contributions in the realm of severe and scientific subjects. It developed a famous School of Nyaya which flourished from the twelfth to the fifteenth century A.D. under the great masters of Logic, Gangesa, Vardhamana, Pakshadhara, and others. This School of New Logic (Navya Nyaya) was founded by Gangesa Upadhyaya and his epoch-making work named "Tattva Chinatmani", a work of about 300 pages whose commentaries make up over 1,000,000 pages in three centuries of its study. Gangesa is supposed to have lived after A.D. 1093-1150, the time of Ananada Suri and Amarachandra Suri, whose opinions he has quoted.
By its scholastic activities Mithila in those days, like Nalanda, used to draw students from different parts of India for advanced and specialized studies in Nyaya or Logic, of which it was then the chief center.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:02 PM
3. Nalanda
Nalanda was the name of the ancient village identified with modern Baragaon, 7 miles north of Rajgir in Bihar. The earliest mention of the place is that in the Buddhist scriptures which refer to a Nalanda village near Rajagriha with a Pavarika Mango Park in Buddha's time. The Jain texts carry the history earlier than the Buddhist. IT was the place where Mahavira had met Gosala and was counted as a bahira or suburb of Rajagriha where Mahavira had spent as many as fourteen rainy seasons. Nalanda, when Fa-hien visited it, was called Nala and was known as the place "where Sariputta was born, and to which also he returned, and attained here his pari-nirvana. Nalanda was not a sectarian or a religious university in the narrow sense of the term, imparting only Buddhist thought. Subjects other than Buddhism were taught as fervently. Almost all sciences, including the science of medicine were taught. So were the Upanishads and the Vedas. Panini¡¯s grammar, the science of pronunciation (Phonetics), etymology, Indology and Yoga were all included in the curricula. Surprisingly, even archery was taught at Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang himself learnt Yogasastra from Jayasena.
Knowledge of Sanskrit was essential for all entrants in spite of the fact that Sakyamuni delivered his sermons in Pali. Knowledge of Sanskrit meant complete mastery of Sanskrit grammar, literature and correct pronunciation, and was compulsory to enter the portals of the university. On the authority of Hiuen Tsang, we can safely say that the entrants to Nalanda were supposed to be well-versed in "Beda" i.e. Veda, Vedanta, Samakhya, Nyaya and Vaisesika. I-Tsing also confirms this in his accounts. Nalanda was an example of the Guru-Shishya parampara, a great Indian tradition. The authority of the Guru (teacher) over the shishya (student) was absolute, and yet, dissent was permitted in academic matters.Free education: Out of the income of the estate. In Nalanda, swimming, breathing exercises and yoga formed an integral part of the curriculum. Harshavardhana, of the Gupta dynasty was a great sportsman and he encouraged his subjects as well. Another great contemporary of Harsha, Narasimhan or Mamallah was also a great wrestler. He belonged to the Pallava dynasty.
Yuan Chawang, a Chinese student at Nalanda, wrote: "In the establishment were some thousand brethren, all men of great learning and ability, several hundreds being highly esteemed and famous; the brethren were very strict in observing the precepts and regulations of their order; learning and discussing, they found the day too short. Day and night they admonished each other, juniors and seniors mutually helping to perfection....Hence foreign students came to the institution to put an end to their rounds and then become celebrated and those who shared the name of Nalanda, were all treated with respect, wherever they went."
(source: On Yuang-Chwang's Travels in India - By Thomas Watters (1840-1901) volume 2 p. 165).
Though Buddhism and Hinduism became arrayed in opposite philosophical camps, they were both given their places in the university curriculum. There was no intellectual isolationism of the type that characterizes modern sectarian institutions of the Christian world. According to eminent Indian historian, R C Dutt, "Buddhism never assumed a hostile attitude towards the parent religion of India; and the fact that the two religions existed side by side for long centuries increased their tolerance of each other. Hindus went to Buddhist monasteries and universities, and Buddhist learnt from Brahmin sages."
(source: Civilization in Ancient India - By R C Dutt p. 127).
According to Alain Danielou (1907-1994) son of French aristocracy, author of numerous books on philosophy, religion, history and arts of India: "Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveler, stayed five years at Nalanda University, where more than seven thousand monks lived. He mentions a very considerable literature in Sanskrit and other works on history, statistics and geography, none of which have survived. He also writes of officials whose job it was to write records of all important events. At Nalanda, studies included the Vedas, the Upanishads, cosmology (Sankhya), realist or scientific philosophy (Vaisheshika), logic (Nyaya), to which great importance was attached, and Jain and Buddhist philosophy. Studies also included grammar, mechanics, medicine, and physics. Medicine was highly effective, and surgery was quite developed. The pharmacopoeia was enormous, and astronomy was very advanced. The earth's diameter had been calculated very precisely. In physics, Brahmagupta had discovered the law of gravity."
(source: A Brief History of India - By Alain Danielou p. 165-166).
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:03 PM
4. Vallabi
Valabhi in Kathiawad was also a great seat of Hindu and Buddhist learning. It was the capital of an important kingdom and a port of international trade with numerous warehouses full of rarest merchandise.
During the 7th century, however, it was more famous as a seat of learning. I-tsing informs us that its fame rivaled with that of Nalanda in eastern India.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:04 PM
5. Vikramasila
Like Nalanda and Vallabhi, the University of Vikramsila was also the result of royal benefactions. Vikramasila, found by king Dharmapala in the 8th century, was a famous center of international learning for more than four centuries. King Dharmapala (c. 775-800 A. D) was its founder, he built temples and monasteries at the place and liberally endowed them. He had the Vihara constructed after a good design. He also erected several halls for the lecturing work. His successors continued to patronize the University down to the 13th century. The teaching was controlled by a Board of eminent teachers and it is stated that this Board of Vikramsila also administered the affairs at Nalanda. The University had six colleges, each with a staff of the standard strength of 108 teachers, and a Central Hall called the House of Science with its six gates opening on to the six Colleges. It is also stated that the outer walls surrounding the whole University was decorated with artistic works, a portrait in painting of Nagarjuna adorning the right of the principal entrance and that of Atisa on the left. On the walls of the University were also the painted portraits of Pandits eminent for their learning and character.
Grammar, logic, metaphysics, ritualism were the main subjects specialized at the institution.
Destruction of Vikramsila by Moslems: In 1203, the University of Vikramasila was destroyed by the Mahomadens under Bakhtyar Khilji. As related by the author of Tabakat-i-Nasari:
"the greater number of the inhabitants of that place were Brahmins and the whole of these Brahmins had their heads shaven; and they were all slain. There were a great number of books on religion of the Hindus (Buddhists) there; and when all these books came under the observation of the Musalmans, they summoned a number of Hindus that they might give them information respecting the import of these books; but the whole of the Hindus had been killed. On becoming acquainted (with the contents of those books), it was found that the whole of that fortress and city was a college, and, in the Hindu tongue, they call a college a Bihar (Vihara)."
After the destruction of the Vikramsila University, Sri Bhadra repaired to the University of Jagadala whence he proceeded to Tibet, accompanied by many other monks who settled down there as preachers of Buddhism.
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:05 PM
6. Jagaddala
Its foundation by King Rama Pala. According to the historical Epic Ramacharita, King Ram Pala, of Bengal and Magadha, who reigned between A.D. 108-1130, founded a new city which he called Ramavati on the banks of the rivers Ganga and Karatoya in Varendra and equipped the city with a Vihara called Jagadala. The University could barely work for a hundred years, till the time of Moslem invasion sweeping it away in A.D. 1203. But in its short life it has made substantial contributions to learning through its scholars who made it famous by their writings.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:06 PM
7. Odantapuri
Very little is known of this University, although at the time of Abhayakaragupta there were 1,000 monks in residence here. Odanatapuri is now known for the famous scholar named Prabhakara who hailed from Chatarpur in Bengal. It appears that this University had existed long before the Pala kings came into power in Magadha. These kings expanded the University by endowing it with a good Library of Brahmanical and Buddhist works. This Monastery was taken as the model on which the first Tibetan Buddhist Monastery was built in 749 A.D. under King Khri-sron-deu-tsan on the advice of his guru, Santarak----a.
A typical Brahmin with a high chignon, beard, short garments, seat of mat, round leafy hut; four fellow denizens of his hermitage, a dow, a crow, a kneeling doe, and a coiled snake, all living at peace as friends in the atmosphere of non-violence.
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Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:07 PM
8. Nadia
Nadia is the popular name of Navadvipa on the Bhagirathi at its confluence with Jalangi. Once it was a center of trade borne by the Bhagirathi between Saptframa )on the river Sarasvati near Hoogly) and the United Provinces, and in the other direction by the Jalangi between Saptagrama and Eastern Bengal.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:08 PM
9. Madura Sangham - was another seat of learning.
The Sangham was known for its learning and academic prestige. Writing about the Tamil institutions, Dr. Krishnaswami Aiyangar (1871-1947) remarks: "There are two features with regard to these assemblies that call for special remark. The first, the academics were standing bodies of the most eminent men among the learned men of the time in all branches of knowledge. The next, it was the approval of this learned body that set the seal of authority on the works preserved to it."
Scholars were honored irrespective of sex. Aiyangar continues: "A Ruler of Tanjore, poet, musician, warrior, and administrator, did extraordinary honor to a lady of Court, by name Ramachandramha, who composed an epic on the achievements of her patron, Raghunatha Nayaka of Tanjore. It appears that she was accorded honor of Kanaka-Ratna Abhisheka (bath in gold and gems). She was, by assent of the Court, made to occupy the position of "Emperor of Learning."
(source: India: A synthesis of Culture - By Kewal Motwani p. 138).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:11 PM
10. Benares
Next, to Takkasila ranks Benares as a seat of learning. It was, however, largely the creation of the ex-students of Takkasila who set up as teachers at Benares, and carried thither the culture of that cosmopolitan educational center which was molding the intellectual life of the whole of India. There were again certain subjects in the teaching of which Benares seems to have specialized. There is an expert who was "the chief of his kind in all India."
Benares has always been a culture center of all India fame and even in the Buddha's day it was already old. Though not a formal university, it is a place unique in India, which has throughout the ages provided the most suitable atmosphere for the pursuit of higher studies. The method of instruction as also the curriculum followed there in early times was adopted from Taxila.
Benares University was famous for Hindu culture. Sankaracharya as a student was acquainted with this university. Benares is the only city in India which has its schools representing every branch of Hindu thought. And there is no spiritual path which has not its center in Benares with resident adherents. Every religious sect of the Hindus has its pilgrimage there. In ancient days, Sarnath figured as a recognized seat of Buddhist learning. Rightly, therefore, it is this holy city the very heart of spiritual India.
Alberuni, the noted Arabian historian, mentioned Benares as a great seat of learning and Bernier, who visited India, described it "as a kind of university, but it resembled rather the school of ancients, the masters being spread over different parts of the town in private houses."
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:12 PM
11. Kachipuram
Was another such institution of learning in South India.
It came to be known as Dakshina Kasi, Southern Kashi.
Huien Tsang visited it about 642. A.D. and found Vaishnavite and Shaivite Hindus, Digambara Jain and Mahayan Buddhists studying together.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:14 PM
12. Navadvip
Navadvip belonged to comparatively recent times and was founded by Sena Kings of Bengal in about 1063 A.D. and soon rose to be a great center of learning. It imparted instruction in Vedas, Vedangas, Six Systems especially Nyaya. Chaitanya was a product of Navadvipa. It had 500-600 students, when A. H Wilson visited it in 1821, drawn from Bengal, Assam, Nepal and South India.
In 1867, Edward B Cowell (1826-1903) professor of Sanskrit in Cambridge and author of The aphorisms of Sandilya or The Hindu doctrine of faith, recorded his opinion in these words: "I could not help looking at these unpretending lecture-halls with a deep interest, as I thought of the pundits lecturing there to generation after generation of eager, inquisitive minds. Seated on the floor with his 'corona' of listening pupils round him, the teacher expiates on those refinements of infinitesmal logic which makes a European's brain dizzy to think of, but whose labyrinth a trained Nadia student will thread with unfaltering precision."
(source: India: A synthesis of Culture - By Kewal Motwani p. 134-145 and Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times - By Key p.145).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:18 PM
Libraries in Ancient India
The great seats of learning in ancient India like Nalanda, Vikramasila, Pataliputra, and Tamralipti are said to have contained libraries of their own and striven hard for the promotion of education and learning in the country, the evidence for which comes from the writings of Hieun-Tsang and It-Sing who spent some time in some of the centers and studied the Buddhist philosophy. They were given all facilities to copy down the manuscripts which they wanted from the libraries. Each of these institutions must have maintained a well equipped library for the use of teachers and students.
The library in ancient times was called either Saraswati-bhandara or Pustaka bhandara. Many libraries were located in temples. In South India, records contain references to Nagai, Srirangam, Sermadevi and Cidambaram, Kacipuram and Sringeri. In this connection it may be mentioned that libraries in ancient Cambodia were all located in temples and the inscriptions from some temples in the area bear evidence to that.
Library is mentioned for the first time in the inscriptions of the king Indravarman at Preah Ko and Bakong (Cambodia). They were rectangular with gabled ends and at first with a single vaulted hall. The temples of Prasat Bantay Pir Chan, and Angkor Wat contained libraries in which the main deity of the temples were oriented.
It is also interesting to note that the walls of the library were sculptured with panels depicting scenes from the epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
QUOTE:
"India has lost much of its great treasures of ancient texts during the successive invasions by foreign rulers. Our great libraries at Nalanda and other places were burnt to ashes. Sachan who collected and edited Al Beruni's works said: "It was like a magic island of quiet and impartial research, in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns, and plundered temples. The work of many eminent scholars contained thousands of volumes of translations of Indian texts, whose original were lost in India owing to the depredations of Mohammedan iconoclasts who destroyed hundreds of Hindu and Buddhist seats of learning, in India including the world famous Nalanda University." "The Christian missionaries in the West coast took away and burnt many valuable manuscripts. Many great scholars died without passing down their knowledge to the descendents. In their quest for livelihood during the nine hundred years of foreign rule, the descendents did not care to preserve their knowledge."
(source: Hindu Superiority - Har Bilas Sarda p. 150 and Vision of India - By Sisir Kumar Mitra p. 186 and The Temple Empire - By Vidyavisarada Garimella Veeraraghuvulu. Printed in Sri Gayathri press. Kakinada. India 1982 p. 136-137)..
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:19 PM
(Note: The fall of Nalanda at the hands of the Turks is a story too deep for tears. Like Nero, Bakhtiar Khilji, its destroyer in 1205 A.D., laughed while Nalanda burnt. The City of Knowledge, which took several centuries to build, took only a few hours to be destroyed. Legend has it that when some monks fell at the feet of the invader to spare at least its world-famed library, Ratnabodhi, he kicked them and had them thrown in the fire along with the books. The monks fled to foreign lands, citizens became denizens and Nalanda was relegated to a memory.
(source: Nalanda - The City of Knowledge).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:21 PM
Many of these universities were sacked, plundered, looted by the Islamic onslaught.
They destroyed temples and libraries and indulged in most heinous type of vandalism. These were particularly heinous crimes. The burning of the Library of Nalanda ranks with the destruction of the Library of Alexandria as the two most notorious acts of vandalism in the course of Islamic expansion. Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odantapura, and Jagddala as the universities destroyed by Mohammed Bakhtiar Khilji around 1200 A.D.).
Gertrude Emerson Sen ( - 1982) historian and journalist and Asia specialist, wrote on the plight of the universities: "Night was to descend on all the great centers of traditional Indian learning, however, when the untutored Muslims of Central Asia poured into India with fire and sword at the beginning of the 11th century."
(source The Pageant of India's History - By Gertrude Emerson Sen p. 275 - 276).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:23 PM
Arrival of the British in India
Later when the British came there was, throughout India, a system of communal schools, managed by the village communities. The agents of the East India Company and the Christian missionaries destroyed these village community schools, and took steps to replace education by introducing English and western system of education.
In October 1931 Mahatma Gandhi made a statement at Chatham House, London, that created a furor in the English press.
He said, "Today India is more illiterate than it was fifty or a hundred years ago, and so is Burma, because the British administrators, when they came to India, instead of taking hold of things as they were, began to root them out. They scratched the soil and left the root exposed and the beautiful tree perished".
Mr. Ermest Havell (formerly Principal of the Calcutta school of Art) has rightly said, the fault of the Anglo-Indian Educational System is that, instead of harmonizing with, and supplementing, national culture, it is antagonist to, and destructive, of it.
Sir George Birdwood says of the system that it ¡°has destroyed in Indians the love of their own literature, the quickening soul of a people, and their delight in their own arts, and worst of all their repose in their own traditional and national religion, has disgusted them with their own homes, their parents, and their sisters, their very wives, and brought discontent into every family so far as its baneful influences have reached."
(source: Bharata Shakti: Collection of Addresses on Indian Culture - By Sir John Woodroffe p 75-77).
As Max Mueller, the propagator of the Aryan invasion theory, wrote to his wife, "It took only 200 years for us to Christianise the whole of Africa, but even after 400 years India eludes us, I have come to realize that it is Sanskrit which has enabled India to do so. And to break it I have decided to learn Sanskrit." The soul of India lies in Sanskrit. And Lord Macaulay saw to it that the later generations are successfully cut off from their roots.
(source: Assaulting India's pluralist ethos - by D. Harikumar The Hindu).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:25 PM
Dalits and Indigenous System of Educaiton
Dharampal (The Beautiful Tree) has effectively debunked the myth that Dalits had no place in the indigenous system of education. Sir Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras, ordered a mammoth survey in June 1822, whereby the district collectors furnished the caste-wise division of students in four categories, viz., Brahmins, Vysyas (Vaishyas), Shoodras (Shudras) and other castes (broadly the modern scheduled castes). While the percentages of the different castes varied in each district, the results were revealing to the extent that they showed an impressive presence of the so-called lower castes in the school system.
Thus, in Vizagapatam, Brahmins and Vaishyas together accounted for 47% of the students, Shudras comprised 21% and the other castes (scheduled) were 20%; the remaining 12% were Muslims. In Tinnevelly, Brahmins were 21.8% of the total number of students, Shudras were 31.2% and other castes 38.4% (by no means a low figure). In South Arcot, Shudras and other castes together comprised more than 84% of the students!
In the realm of higher education as well, there were regional variations. Brahmins appear to have dominated in the Andhra and Tamil Nadu regions, but in the Malabar area, theology and law were Brahmin preserves, but astronomy and medicine were dominated by Shudras and other castes. Thus, of a total of 808 students in astronomy, only 78 were Brahmins, while 195 were Shudras and 510 belonged to the other castes (scheduled). In medicine, out of a total of 194 students, only 31 were Brahmins, 59 were Shudras and 100 belonged to the other castes. Even subjects like metaphysics and ethics that we generally associate with Brahmin supremacy, were dominated by the other castes (62) as opposed to merely 56 Brahmin students. It bears mentioning that this higher education was in the form of private tuition (or education at home), and to that extent also reflects the near equal economic power of the concerned groups.
As a concerned reader informed me, the ¡®Survey of Indigenous Education in the Province of Bombay (1820-1830)¡¯ showed that Brahmins were only 30% of the total students there. What is more, when William Adam surveyed Bengal and Bihar, he found that Brahmins and Kayasthas together comprised less than 40% of the total students, and that forty castes like Tanti, Teli, Napit, Sadgop, Tamli etc. were well represented in the student body. The Adam report mentions that in Burdwan district, while native schools had 674 students from the lowest thirty castes, the 13 missionary schools in the district together had only 86 students from those castes. Coming to teachers, Kayasthas triumphed with about 50% of the jobs and there were only six Chandal teachers; but Rajputs, Kshatriyas and Chattris (Khatris) together had only five teachers.
Even Dalit intellectuals have questioned what the British meant when they spoke of ¡®education¡¯ and ¡®learning¡¯. Dr. D.R. Nagaraj, a leading Dalit leader of Karnataka, wrote that it was the British, particularly Lord Wellesley, who declared the Vedantic Hinduism of the Brahmins of Benares and Navadweep as ¡°the standard Hinduism,¡± because they realized that the vitality of the Hindu dharma of the lower castes was a threat to the empire. Fort William College, founded by Wellesley in 1800, played a major role in investing Vedantic learning with a prominence it probably hadn't had for centuries. In the process, the cultural heritage of the lower castes was successfully marginalized, and this remains an enduring legacy of colonialism. Examining Dharampal's ¡°Indian science and technology in the eighteenth century,¡± Nagaraj observed that most of the native skills and technologies that perished as a result of British policies were those of the Dalit and artisan castes. This effectively debunks the fiction of Hindu-hating secularists that the so-called lower castes made no contribution to India's cultural heritage and needed deliverance from wily Brahmins.
Indeed, given the desperate manner in which the British vilified the Brahmin, it is worth examining what so annoyed them. As early as 1871-72, Sir John Campbell objected to Brahmins facilitating upward mobility: ¡°¡the Brahmans are always ready to receive all who will submit to them¡ The process of manufacturing Rajputs from ambitious aborigines (tribals) goes on before our eyes.¡±
Sir Alfred Lyall (1796 - 1865) was unhappy and he wrote:
¡°¡more persons in India become every year Brahmanists than all the converts to all the other religions in India put together... these teachers address themselves to every one without distinction of caste or of creed; they preach to low-caste men and to the aboriginal tribes¡ in fact, they succeed largely in those ranks of the population which would lean towards Christianity and Mohammedanism if they were not drawn into Brahmanism¡¡±
So much for the British public denunciation of the exclusion practiced by Brahmins!
(source: The Brahmin and the Hindu - By Sandhya Jain - dailypioneer.com - December 14 2004).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:28 PM
Dharampal ( - 2006) was a Gandhian in ceaseless search of truth like his preceptor Gandhi himself. He has demolished the myth that India was backward educationally or economically when the British entered. Citing the Christian missionary William Adam¡¯s report on indigenous education in Bengal and Bihar in 1835 and 1838, Dharampal established that at that time there were 100,000 schools in Bengal, one school for about 500 boys; that the indigenous medical system that included inoculation against small-pox.
He also proved by reference to other materials that Adam¡¯s record was ¡®no legend¡¯. He relied on Sir Thomas Munroe¡¯s report to the Governor at about the same time to prove similar statistics about schools in Madras. He also found that the education system in the Punjab during the Maharaja Ranjit Singh¡¯s rule was equally extensive. He estimated that the literary rate in India before the British was higher than that in England.
Citing British public records he established, on the contrary, that ¡®British had no tradition of education or scholarship or philosophy from 16th to early 18th century, despite Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Newton, etc¡¯. Till then education and scholarship in the UK was limited to select elite. He cited Alexander Walker¡¯s Note on Indian education to assert that it was the monitorial system of education borrowed from India that helped Britain to improve, in later years, school attendance which was just 40, 000, yes just that, in 1792. He then compared the educated people¡¯s levels in India and England around 1800. The population of Madras Presidency then was 125 lakhs and that of England in 1811 was 95 lakhs. Dharampal found that during 1822-25 the number of those in ordinary schools in Madras Presidency was around 1.5 lakhs and this was after great decay under a century of British intervention.
As against this, the number attending schools in England was half - yes just half - of Madras Presidency¡¯s, namely a mere 75,000. And here to with more than half of it attending only Sunday schools for 2-3 hours! Dharampal also established that in Britain ¡®elementary system of education at people¡¯s level remained unknown commodity¡¯ till about 1800! Again he exploded the popularly held belief that most of those attending schools must have belonged to the upper castes particularly Brahmins and, again with reference to the British records, proved that the truth was the other way round.
During 1822-25 the share of the Brahmin students in the indigenous schools in Tamil-speaking areas accounted for 13 per cent in South Arcot to some 23 per cent in Madras while the backward castes accounted for 70 per cent in Salem and Tirunelveli and 84 per cent in South Arcot.
The situation was almost similar in Malayalam, Oriya and Kannada-speaking areas, with the backward castes dominating the schools in absolute numbers. Only in the Telugu-speaking areas the share of the Brahmins was higher and varied from 24 to 46 per cent. Dharampal's work proved Mahatma Gandhi¡¯s statement at Chatham House in London on October 20, 1931 that "India today is more illiterate than it was fifty or hundred years ago" completely right.
(source: Not many know the Indian past he had discovered! - by S Gurumurthy - newindpress.com).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:31 PM
Brahmins in India have become a minority
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P7Xgc4ljHKM
The present education system is, in effect, a legacy of the colonial rule.
For more on this tragic destruction of ancient education, please refer to the chapters:
Islamic Onslaught: http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Islamic_Onslaught.htm
FirstIndologists: http://www.hinduwisdom.info/FirstIndologists
European Imperialism: http://www.hinduwisdom.info/European_Imperialism.htm
Also refer to Education: A Beautiful Tree - Indiatogether.com and The Beautiful Tree - Shri Dharampal - an associate of Mahatma Gandhi (Biblia Impex, Delhi, 1983):
http://www.indiatogether.org/education/opinions/btree.htm
http://www.goacom.com/oibs/servlet/GenCatalog?catid=21
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:34 PM
Saraswati
In India, our goddess of learning is Saraswati. She who is seated on a white lotus, wearing a beautiful white garment; she who holds a lute in her hand and has a garland of fresh white jasmine buds around her neck; she who is worshipped even by Brahma, Shiva and all gods ¨C may that Saraswati, Goddess of Learning, remove my ignorance. It is significant that these ideas of beauty and grace, purity, simplicity, and holiness are associated with the goddess of learning. In the traditional Indian scheme of values, scholarship is not regarded as an end in itself, and education is looked upon as the molding of the complete man. The educational system established by the British in India was one-sided, and came in for sharp criticism from Rabindranath Tagore and Sri Aurobindo.
Rabindranath Tagore wrote:
"The Western system of education is impersonal ... It dwells in the cold-storage compartments of lessons and the ice-packed minds of the schoolmasters ... It represented an artificial method of training specially calculated to produce the carriers of the white man's burden." Man¡¯s intellect has a natural pride in its own aristocracy, which is the pride of its culture. When this pride succumbs to some compulsion of necessity or lure of material advantage, it brings humiliation on to the intellectual man. Modern India, through her education, has been made to suffer this humiliation. There was a time when India provided her children with a culture which was the product of her own thought and creation. But this culture was brushed aside by the educationists under the British rule." "Our educated community is not a cultured community but a community of qualified candidates."
(source: The Spirit of Modern India - Edited by Robert A McDermont and V. S. Naravane p. 169 - 171and 182-185).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-6-1 07:35 PM
The above extracts were taken from:
http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Education_in_Ancient_India.htm
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-7-17 07:05 AM
India shining? IT's there, everywhere!
These are strange times, when the global media speaks of `India rising' and discusses the `threat' posed by Indian technology to the West. In this year end appraisal, Anand Parthasarathy finds Indian ingenuity all across the IT spectrum .
A new book, out last week, chronicles possibly for the first time ¡ª the story from a `desi' perspective and weaves Indian achievers and achievements into the very fabric of IT and its brief international history. Sand to Silicon: The Amazing Story of Digital Technology is the work of technology journalist Shivanand Kanavi, currently Executive Editor of Business India magazine. It is published by Tata McGraw-Hill (www.tatamcgrawhill.com), costs Rs. 295, and reading it, will make every Indian proud.
While tracing key developments in semiconductor and computer technology, Mr Kanavi repeatedly reminds readers of Indian contributions that tend to get overlooked: Jagdish Chandra Bose created a semiconductor microwave detector using iron and mercury in his lab in Kolkata in 1897, the year Marconi used a version in his wireless radio receiver.
When Neville Mott received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for his work in solid-state electronics, he remarked "Bose was at least 60 years ahead of his time." In the 1980s, while the first microprocessors went under the hoods of the first personal computers, Pallab Chatterjee at Texas Instruments was honing the technology to pack more transistors on to a slab of silicon and Tom Kailath at Stanford University developed the signal processing to compensate for the effect of `masking' during chip production.
Kanavi reminds us of the work of Indians behind key milestones in computer history: Vinod Khosla co-founded Sun Microsystems in 1982, a company that created the PC workstation. Vinod Dham at Intel, created that company's most successful chip ever ¡ª the Pentium. The book pays tribute to pioneers of mainframe computer programming in India ¡ª R. Narasimhan at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR); H. Kesavan and V. Rajaraman of IIT Kanpur... a tradition that continued into the 21st century when in August 2002, Manindra Agrawal of the same IIT, with two students, won global recognition for solving the centuries-old problem of how to test for prime numbers.
The foray into Indian language computing aids was led by Mohan Tambe at the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) while it is rarely appreciated that a significant part in the development of that industry-standard presentation software, Powerpoint, was played by Vijay Vashee at Microsoft. The birth of the Internet spawned a new generation of Indian technologists like Sabeer Bhatia who created the Web's first free email service, Hotmail; Arun Netravali, now Chief Scientist at Lucent Technologies, who provided key building blocks for video streaming and digital satellite TV, and N. Jayant of Bell Labs who helped create the MPEG standard for audio compression.
One could go on and on, digging such fascinating facts from Kanavi's Indian `take' on global technology. Rather than lifting large chunks from his work, let me share with readers a few bits of `thaja khabar' emanating from India's silicon city, Bangalore in recent days. These days, every other announcement of a new IT development seems to involve Indian ingenuity somewhere in the process... often in the unlikeliest corners.
Consider:
- In Mumbai, recently during the Intel Developer Forum, I bumped into Krishna Srinivasan, Executive Vice President of Sandhill Systems, an Indian IT company based in San Jose, California (U.S.). His core work is an example of e-governance osmosis in reverse. Sandhill has created E-Forms and a complimentary server, `SubmitIT' that key US federal departments are using for the electronic capture and transmission of a variety of citizen forms.
- When P.V. Kannan, founder CEO of the California- based 24/7 Customer, voice and email-based support services player told me last week that his company boasted 20 master Black Belts, I wondered when Karate had became a qualification in the call centre. I soon realized he was taking of the Six Sigma Black Belt given for quality of service, not kicks. The company is the first Indian contact centre ever, to receive the ISO 9002 certification.
* Another US Silicon Valley-based company, SiNett Semiconductors, will soon unveil the world's first multi gigabit System on a Chip (SoC) for wireless networking applications... with 150 million transistors on board. Last week co founder and CEO Shiri Kadambi was in Bangalore to help set up an R&D centre here.
* Two graduate students from the Karnataka Regional Engineering College Aravind Melligeri and Ajit Prabhu founded QuEST in Schenectady, New York. Today, the company provides critical solutions in aerospace, automotive and power generation industry leaders. Their crash analysis work is used by leading manufacturers in Detroit to build better cars. Their testing and analysis of aero engine turbines, bolsters new designs that roll out from GE, Pratt and Whitney and other globally respected brand names that go into the Boeing and other passenger aircraft. And 80 per cent of their engineering muscle is located at Whitefield, Bangalore.
* When Hewlett Packard decided to participate at the Information and Communication Technology for Development (ICT4D) expo at the UN- sponsored World Summit on Information Society (WSIS) in Geneva earlier this month, they decided to project some of the exciting initiatives in their `e-inclusion' programme .. to take IT to the rural heartland of the world's developing nations. So what was the key exhibit? Scriptmail, a handy device on which one can scribble a message in Kannada or Hindi or Telugu and see it converted into machine readable format and then emailed so that it can then be received and seen exactly the way it was entered. The product was developed at HP Labs, Bangalore, by Indian engineers.
As the Net becomes all pervasive, so seemingly is the inventive reach of Indian ingenuity. And on the global IT road map, each of these developments is one more meaningful signpost for a nation whose earthy goals were elegantly expressed by her most fervent techno-evangelist, the late Dewang Mehta: ` Roti, kapda, makaan, bijlee aur bandwidth.'
© Copyright 2000 - 2008 The Hindu
BIHAR'S MOST colourful politician is credited with the memorable question: `Yeh IT, YT kya hai? Will it bring rain to the drought stricken?' Clearly, it cannot, but thirty years into the computer revolution, we are fairly confident that it can help us manage our drought relief programmes better. That is because, late starter though India was, it has carved out its own special space in the Information Technology (IT) arena and Indian expertise and talent drives key sectors of the computers-and-communication business worldwide.
Author: seneca Time: 2008-7-17 09:24 AM
And India is still light years behind China's technological transformation (with the help of the West).
Author: northwest Time: 2008-7-17 09:34 AM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by seneca at 2008-7-17 09:24
And India is still light years behind China's technological transformation (with the help of the West).
Then why don't you go there?
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-7-20 10:16 PM
QUOTE:
Then why don't you go there?
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-7-20 10:59 PM Subject: Women in Hinduism
I noticed womewhere above that some source claimed that Hindu treated women in its history, in good way.
Hope this article will illustrate that good treatment of women in Hinduism nicely.
http://www.geocities.com/~abdulwahid/hinduism/hindu_women.html
Author: satsu_jin Time: 2008-7-21 02:44 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by saj2go at 2008-7-20 23:59
I noticed womewhere above that some source claimed that Hindu treated women in its history, in good way.
Hope this article will illustrate that good treatment of women in Hinduism nicely.
[ur ...
Saj,
This is an Islamic site. If you want to prove something quote neutral sources and no propaganda sites.
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-8-12 12:55 AM
QUOTE:
Saj,
This is an Islamic site. If you want to prove something quote neutral sources and no propaganda sites.
Did you read the post number 450, yesterday, which is not visible now.
Perhaps, you clicked the report button after reading it. Yea?
Author: saj2go Time: 2008-8-14 09:46 PM
Author: seneca Time: 2008-8-14 10:57 PM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by
saj2go at 2008-7-20 22:16
My wife wouldn't last long in India or Pakistan - sleaze, dirty stares by men, eating food by hand, etc. She does like Indian curries, though - but silverware must be provided too together with the meal.
Author: petera Time: 2008-8-15 06:32 AM Subject: India's gain
Anywhere that Seneca isn't can count at least one blessing.
Author: emucentral Time: 2008-8-15 09:12 AM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by satsu_jin at 2008-7-21 16:44
Saj,
This is an Isl.amic site. If you want to prove something quote neutral sources and no propaganda sites.
Looks like the fundamentalist Hindus and the fundamentalist Mus.lims have a lot in common.
Author: petera Time: 2008-12-15 05:53 AM Subject: Tamil Bell
http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZeal ... urces/Standard/3/en
Never knew about this.Amazing.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-17 03:23 AM
QUOTE:
The Tamil Bell
Tamils have long been seafarers and traders. It is believed that they reached northern Australia by the 14th century, and there is a suggestion that they may have got as far as New Zealand. In 1836 the missionary explorer William Colenso found this bell, which had been used by M¨¡ori as a cooking vessel for generations. Inscribed on it in Tamil are the words ¡®Mohoyideen Buk¡¯s ship¡¯s bell¡¯. The bell is now held at the national museum, Te Papa. Theories abound, but the precise origins of the bell and how it got to New Zealand remain a mystery.
Image Attachment:
tamil bell.jpg (2008-12-17 03:23 AM, 27.28 K) / Download count 27
http://bbs.chinadaily.com.cn/attachment.php?aid=91687
Author: petera Time: 2008-12-17 09:24 AM Subject: Thanks
Thanks for attaching that image,Buddy.
Author: augusten Time: 2008-12-17 09:26 AM
QUOTE:
Originally posted by
seneca at 2008-8-14 22:57
I've been to both Pakistan and India. I know enough to make my own decisions as to where it suits me better.
My wife wouldn't last long in India or Pakistan - sleaze, dirty stares by men, ...
But you still retain the bad habit, curse and scorn the country you live in everyday.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:23 PM
Zero ¨CThe Most Powerful Tool
QUOTE:
Originally posted by changabula at 2007-6-18 19:11
INVENTION OF ZERO:
Brahmagupta was the first mathematician to treat Zero (0) as a number and showed its mathematical operations.
India invented the Zero, without which there would be no binary system. No computers!
Counting would be clumsy and cumbersome!
The earliest recorded date, an inscription of Zero on Sankheda Copper Plate was found in Gujarat, India (585-586 CE).
In Brahma-Phuta-Siddhanta of Brahmagupta (7th century CE), the Zero is lucidly explained and was rendered into Arabic books around 770 CE. From these it was carried to Europe in the 8th century.
However, the concept of Zero is referred to as Shunya in the early Sanskrit texts of the 4th century BCE and clearly explained in Pingala¡¯s Sutra of the 2nd century.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:26 PM
Geometry and Trigonometry
The word Geometry seems to have emerged from the Indian word ¡®Gyaamiti¡¯ which means measuring the Earth. Although Euclid (a Greek) is credited with its invention in 300 BCE, the concept of Geometry developed in India from the practice of making fire altars in square and rectangular shapes.
Also, the Theorem now attributed to Pythagoras (the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides) was elucidated earlier by Baudhayana an recorded in the Treatise, Baudhayana Sulba Sutra (6th century BCE).
The word Trigonometry is similar to ¡®Trikonamiti¡¯ meaning ¡®measuring triangular forms.¡¯ The Sanskrit text, Surya Siddhanta (4th century CE) describes details of Trigonometry which were introduced to Europe by Briggs in the 16th century.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:27 PM
The Value of Pi (n)
The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is known as Pi.
The text Baudhyana Shulba Sutra mentions this ratio to be approximately equal to 3.
Aryabhatta in 499 CE worked out the value of Pi to the fourth decimal place as 3.1416.
In 825 CE the Arab mathematician Mohammed Ibna Musa says that ¡°This value has been given by the Hindu (Indians).¡±
Present day calculations give its value of Pi as 3.1415926535¡
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:30 PM
Scientific Studies at Takshashila, the World¡¯s First University
Around 2700 years ago, as early as 700 BCE there existed a giant University at Takshashila, located in the northwest region of India.
Not only Indians but also students from as far as Babylonia, Greece, Syria, Arabia and China came to study.
68 different streams of knowledge were on the syllabus.
Experienced masters taught a wide range of subjects:
Vedas, Language, Grammar, Philosophy, Medicine, Surgery, Archery, Politics, Warfare, Astronomy, Accounts, commerce, Futurology, Documentation, Occult, Music, Dance, The art of discovering hidden treasures, etc.
The panel of Masters included renowned names like Kautilya, Panini, Jivak and Vishnu Sharma.
At the height of its glory, this university boasted an enrollment of 10,500 students, many from far away Arabia, Babylonia (Iraq), Greece, Syria and China. The results of early scientific investigation were incorporated within the domain of Hindu religious studies. The inclusion of non-religious information into religious texts was uniquely Indian.
The tradition for inquiry across India was mentioned by Hieun Tsang, the Chinese chronicler who travelled the country extensively during the 7th century CE. In his memoirs he described the merchants of Benaras as being mostly "unbelievers". He wrote of intense polemics and debates amongst followers of different Buddhist sects. Yet, instead of undermining the faith of Indians, the newly acquired scientific information complemented the growing body of knowledge as debates focused on the value of the real-world versus the spiritual-world. In their attempts to prove the primacy of a mystical soul or "Atman", early Indian thinkers would often go to great lengths to describe competing rationalist and worldly philosophies. These did lead to developing new hypotheses, extending and elaborating existing theories, and furnishing proofs and counter-proofs. In effect, debates and discussions led to the emergence of deductive and inductive logic¡ªthe very foundation on which our present day scientific method is based.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:33 PM
The Decimal
100BCE the Decimal system flourished in India
QUOTE:
"It was India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols (Decimal System)¡.a profound and important idea which escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest men produced by antiquity."
-La Place
Raising 10 to the Power of 53
The highest prefix used for raising 10 to a power in today¡¯s maths is ¡®D¡¯ for 10 to a power of 30 (from Greek Deca). While, as early as 100 BCE Indian Mathematicians had exact names for figures upto 10 to the power of 53.
ekam =1
dashakam =10
shatam =100 (10 to the power of 10)
sahasram =1000 (10 power of 3)
dashasahasram =10000 (10 power of 4)
lakshaha =100000 (10 power of 5)
dashalakshaha =1000000 (10 power of 6)
kotihi =10000000 (10 power of 7)
ayutam =1000000000 (10 power of 9)
niyutam = (10 power of 11)
kankaram = (10 power of 13)
vivaram = (10 power of 15)
paraardhaha = (10 power of 17)
nivahaaha = (10 power of 19)
utsangaha = (10 power of 21)
bahulam = (10 power of 23)
naagbaalaha = (10 power of 25)
titilambam = (10 power of 27)
vyavasthaana
pragnaptihi = (10 power of 29)
hetuheelam = (10 power of 31)
karahuhu = (10 power of 33)
hetvindreeyam = (10 power of 35)
samaapta lambhaha = (10 power of 37)
gananaagatihi) = (10 power of 39)
niravadyam = (10 power of 41)
mudraabaalam = (10 power of 43)
sarvabaalam = (10 power of 45)
vishamagnagatihi = (10 power of 47)
sarvagnaha = (10 power of 49)
vibhutangamaa = (10 power of 51)
tallaakshanam = (10 power of 53)
(In Anuyogdwaar Sutra written in 100 BCE one numeral is raised as high as 10 to the power of 140).
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:34 PM
Indian astronomers have been mapping the skies for 3500 years.
1000 Years Before Copernicus
Copernicus published his theory of the revolution of the Earth in 1543.
A thousand years before him, Aryabhatta in 5th century (400-500 CE) stated that the Earth revolves around the sun, "just as a person travelling in a boat feels that the trees on the bank are moving, people on earth feel that the sun is moving".
In his treatise Aryabhatteeam, he clearly states that our earth is round, it rotates on its axis, orbits the sun and is suspended in space and explains that lunar and solar eclipses occur by the interplay of the sun, the moon and the earth.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:35 PM
The Law of Gravity - 1200 Years Before Newton
The Law of Gravity was known to the ancient Indian astronomer Bhaskaracharya. In his Surya Siddhanta, he notes:
QUOTE:
"Objects fall on earth due to a force of attraction by the earth. therefore, the earth, the planets, constellations, the moon and the sun are held in orbit due to this attraction".
It was not until the late 17th century in 1687, 1200 years later, that Sir Isaac Newton rediscovered the Law of Gravity.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:37 PM
Measurement of Time
In Surya Siddhanta, Bhaskaracharya calculates the time taken for the earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places.
Bhaskaracharya = 365.258756484 days.
Modern accepted measurement = 365.2596 days.
Between Bhaskaracharya¡¯s ancient measurement 1500 years ago and the modern measurement the difference is only 0.00085 days, only 0.0002%.
34000TH of a Second to 4.32 Billion Years
India has given the idea of the smallest and the largest measure of time.
Krati Krati = 34,000th of a second
1 Truti = 300th of a second
2 Truti = 1 Luv
2 Luv = 1 Kshana
30 Kshana = 1 Vipal
60 Vipal = 1 Pal
60 Pal = 1 Ghadi (24 minutes)
2.5 Gadhi = 1 Hora (1 hour)
24 Hora = 1 Divas (1 day)
7 Divas = 1 saptaah (1 week)
4 Saptaah = 1 Maas (1 month)
2 Maas = 1 Rutu (1 season)
6 Rutu = 1 Varsh (1 year)
100 Varsh = 1 Shataabda (1 century)
10 Shataabda = 1 sahasraabda
432 Sahasraabda = 1 Yug (Kaliyug)
2 Yug = 1 Dwaaparyug
3 Yug = 1 Tretaayug
4 Yug = 1 Krutayug
10 Yug = 1 Mahaayug (4,320,000 years)
1000 Mahaayug = 1 Kalpa
1 Kalpa = 4.32 billion years
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:39 PM
Plastic Surgery In India 2600 Years Old
Shushruta, known as the father of surgery, practised his skill as early as 600 BCE. He used cheek skin to perform plastic surgery to restore or reshape the nose, ears and lips with incredible results. Modern plastic surgery acknowledges his contributions by calling this method of rhinoplasty as the Indian method.
125 Types Of Surgical Instruments
QUOTE:
"The Hindus (Indians) were so advanced in surgery that their instruments could cut a hair longitudinally".
Shushruta worked with 125 kinds of surgical instruments, which included scalpels, lancets, needles, catheters, rectal speculums, mostly conceived from jaws of animals and birds to obtain the necessary grips. He also defined various methods of stitching: the use of horse¡¯s hair, fine thread, fibres of bark, goat¡¯s guts and ant¡¯s heads.
300 Different Operations
Shushruta describes the details of more than 300 operations and 42 surgical processes. In his compendium Shushruta Samhita he minutely classifies surgery into 8 types:
Aharyam = extracting solid bodies
Bhedyam = excision
Chhedyam = incision
Aeshyam = probing
Lekhyam = scarification
Vedhyam = puncturing
Visraavyam = evacuating fluids
Sivyam = suturing
The ancient Indians were also the first to perform amputation, caesarean surgery and cranial surgery. For rhinoplasty, Shushruta first measured the damaged nose, skilfully sliced off skin from the cheek and sutured the nose. He then placed medicated cotton pads to heal the operation.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-30 10:41 PM
India¡¯s Contributions Acknowledged
Contributions
"It is true that even across the Himalayan barrier India has sent to the west, such gifts as grammar and logic, philosophy and fables, hypnotism and chess, and above all numerals and the decimal system."
Will Durant (American Historian, 1885-1981)
Language
"The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of wonderful structure, more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin and more exquisitely refined than either".
Sir William Jones (British Orientalist, 1746-1794)
Philosophy
~If I were asked under what sky the human mind has most fully developed some of its choicest gifts, has most deeply pondered on the greatest problems of life, and has found solutions, I should point out to India".
Max Muller (German Scholar, 1823-1900
Religion
"There can no longer be any real doubt that both Islam and Christianity owe the foundations of both their mystical and their scientific achievements to Indian initiatives".
- Philip Rawson (British Orientalist)
Atomic Physics
"After the conversations about Indian philosophy, some of the ideas of Quantum Physics that had seemed so crazy suddenly made much more sense".
W. Heisenberg (German Physicist, 1901-1976)
Surgery
"The surgery of the ancient Indian physicians was bold and skilful. A special branch of surgery was devoted to rhinoplasty or operations for improving deformed ears, noses and forming new ones, which European surgeons have now borrowed".
Sir W.Hunter (British Surgeon, 1718-1783)
Literature
"In the great books of India, an Empire spoke to us, nothing small or unworthy, but large, serene, consistent, the voice of an old intelligence which in another age and climate had pondered and thus disposed of the questions that exercises us".
- R.W.Emerson (American Essayist, 1803-1882)
Panini's grammar has been evaluated from various points
of view. After all these different evaluations, I think that the grammar merits asserting ... that it is one of the greatest monuments of human intelligence.
- An evaluation of Panini's contribution by Cardona
Author: expatter Time: 2008-12-30 11:42 PM
So Buddy.
IS an Indian!
Quod Erat Demonstrandum!
QUOTE:
In India, our goddess of learning is Saraswati.
No wonder you hate everyone.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2008-12-31 01:19 AM
Thank you
QUOTE:
Originally posted by expatter at 2008-12-30 23:42
So Buddy.
IS an Indian!
I would be proud to be Indian as I am Chinese!
However, the quote that you made came from the site:
http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Education_in_Ancient_India.htm
as I acknowledged!
Author: buddy35 Time: 2009-1-3 04:04 AM
Civil Engineering:
From complex Harappan towns to Delhi's Qutub Minar, India's indigenous technologies were very sophisticated. They included the design and planning of water supply, traffic flow, natural air conditioning, complex stone work, and construction engineering.
Most students learn about the ancient cities of the Middle East and China. How many have even a basic understanding of the world's oldest and most advanced civilization � the Harappan or Indus-Sarasvati Valley Civilization in India? The Indus-Sarasvati Civilization was the world's first to build planned towns with underground drainage, civil sanitation n, hydraulic engineering, and air-cooling architecture. While the other ancient civilizations of the world were small towns with one central complex, this civilization had the distinction of being spread across many towns, covering a region about half the size of Europe. Weights and linguistic symbols were standardized across this vast geography, for a period of over 1,000 years, from around 3,000 BCE to 1500 BCE. Oven-baked bricks were invented in India in approximately 4,000 BCE. Over 900 of the 1,500 known settlement sites discovered so far are in India.
Since the Indus-Sarasvati script is yet to be decoded, it remains a mystery as to how these people could have achieved such high levels of sophistication and uniformity in a dispersed complex and with no visible signs of centralized power.
For instance, all bricks in this civilization are of the ratio 1:2:4 regardless of their size, location or period of construction. There are many pioneering items of civil engineering, such as drainage systems for water (open and closed), irrigation systems, river dams, water storage tanks carved out of rock, moats, middle-class style homes with private bathrooms and drainage, and even a dockyard; there is evidence of stairs for multiple-storied buildings; many towns have separate citadels, upper and lower towns, and fortified sections; there are separate worker quarters near copper furnaces; granaries have ducts and platforms; and archeologists have found geometric compasses, linear scales made of ivory. Indians also pioneered many engineering tools for construction, surgery, warfare, etc. These included the hollow drill, the true saw, and the needle with the hole on its pointed end. (For further details, see the book summaries in later chapters.)
Author: buddy35 Time: 2009-1-3 04:05 AM
Water Management:
Given the importance of fresh water in India, it is no surprise that the technologies to manage water resources were highly advanced from Harappan times onwards. For example, in Gujarat, Chandragupta built the Sudarshan Lake in late 4th century BCE, and was later repaired in 150 BCE by his grandson. Bhopal's Raja Bhoj Lake, built in 1014-1053, is so massive that it shows up in satellite images. The Vijayanagar Empire built such a large lake in 14th � 15th century CE that it has more construction material than the Great Wall of China. What some historians call the Persian Wheel is actually pre-Mughal and indigenous to India.
Scientists estimate there were 1.3 million man-made water lakes and ponds across India, some as large as 250 square miles. These are now being rediscovered using satellite imagery. These enabled rain water to be harvested and used for irrigation, drinking, etc. till the following year's rainfall.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2009-1-3 04:05 AM
Textiles:
Indian textiles have been legendary since ancient times. The Greeks and Romans extensively imported textiles from India. Roman archives record official complaints about massive cash drainage due to these imports from India.
One of the earliest industries relocated from India to Britain was textiles and it became the first major success of the Industrial Revolution, with Britain replacing India as the world's leading textile exporter. What is suppressed in the discourse about India and Europe is the fact that the technology, designs and even raw cotton were initially imported from India while, in parallel, India's indigenous textile mills were outlawed by the British. India's textile manufacturers were de-licensed, even tortured in some cases, over-taxed and regulated, to 'civilize' them into virtual extinction. Textiles and steel were the mainstays of the British Industrial Revolution. Both had their origins in India. The Ahmedabad textile museum is a great resource for scholarly material.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2009-1-3 04:06 AM
Iron and Steel:
Iron is found in countries neighboring India, leading European scholars to assume that it came from outside India. Given the similarities between the Vedas and Avesta (a Zoroastrian text), some saw this as supporting the theory of diffusion of iron and Vedas into India from the outside. Refuting this, Vibha Tripathi finds that iron in India is much older. Cemeteries in present-day Baluchistan have iron objects. The earlier iron found in Middle Eastern archeological sites was essentially meteorite material sculptured as rock/stone carvings, and was not metallurgically processed at all. Since iron can be a by-product of copper technology, this could be its likely origin in India because copper was a well-known technology in many parts of ancient India. A smelting furnace dated 800 BCE is found in Naikund (Maharashtra), India. Recent discoveries reveal that iron was known in the Ganga valley in mid second millennium BCE. In the mid-first millennium BCE, the Indian wootz steel was very popular in Persian courts for making swords.
Rust-free steel was an Indian invention, and remained an Indian skill for centuries. Delhi's famous iron pillar, dated 402 CE, is considered a metallurgical marvel and shows minimal signs of rust. The famous Damascus steel swords, now displayed in museums across Europe, were made from Indian steel imported by Europeans. The acclaimed Sheffield steel in UK was Indian crucible steel. The best brains of European science worked for decades to learn to reverse-engineer how Indians made crucible steel, and in this process, modern alloy design and physical metallurgy was developed in Europe.
Indian industry was dealt a death blow by the colonial masters who banned the production and manufacture of iron and steel at several places in India, fearing their use in making swords and other arms. In addition, they also ensured India would depend upon iron and steel imported from Europe.
[ Last edited by buddy35 at 2009-1-3 04:07 AM ]
Author: buddy35 Time: 2009-1-3 04:08 AM
Zinc Metallurgy:
Another important Indian contribution to metallurgy was in the isolation, distillation and use of zinc. From natural sources, zinc content in alloys such as brass can go no higher than 28 per cent. These primitive alloys with less than 28 per cent zinc were prevalent in many parts of the world before India. However, to increase the zinc content beyond this threshold, one must first separate the zinc into 100 per cent pure form and then mix the pure zinc back into an alloy. A major breakthrough in the history of metallurgy was India's discovery of zinc distillation whereby the metal was vaporized and then condensed back into pure metal.
Brass in Taxashila has been dated from third century BCE to fifth century CE. A vase from Taxashila is of particular interest because of its 34.34 per cent zinc content and has been dated to the third century BCE (Marshall 1951: 567-568). Recently two brass bangles belonging to the Kushana period have been discovered from Senuwar (Uttar Pradesh, India). They are also made of metallic zinc as they have 35 per cent zinc content (Singh 2004: 594). Experts are unsure if this zinc was made by distillation process.
There is evidence of zinc ore mining at Zawar in Rajasthan from the fifth century BCE, but unfortunately there is lack of evidence of regular production of metallic zinc until the eighth century CE. The earliest confirmed evidence of zinc smelting by distillation is dated back to 840 +110 from Zawar (Craddock et al. 1985, 1989). This is the earliest date for zinc smelting and production of metallic zinc by distillation process anywhere in the world.
Europeans learnt it for the first time in 1743, when know-how was transferred from India. Until then, India had been exporting pure zinc for centuries on an industrial scale. At archeological sites in Rajasthan, retorts used for the distillation are found in very large numbers even today.
Once zinc had become separated into a pure metal, alloys could be made with the required zinc component to provide the required properties. For instance, strength and durability increase with higher zinc component. Also, copper alloys look like gold when the zinc component is higher than 28 per cent. Most early brass objects found in other countries had less than 10 per cent zinc component, and, therefore, these were not based on zinc distillation technology.
Alloys that exceed 10 per cent zinc are found earliest in Taxashila in the fourth century BCE. However, while Taxashila was distilling and manufacturing zinc on a small scale, it was in Zawar, Rajasthan, where this first became industrialized on a large scale. Zinc mines have been found in Dariba (11th century BCE), Agucha (sixth century BCE) and Zawar (fifth century BCE). These mines have pots and other manufacturing tools of these dates, but the mining could be even older. (See further details in later chapters.)
Three important items are now proven about the history of zinc metallurgy: (i) zinc distillation and metallurgical usage was pioneered in India; (ii) industrial scale production was pioneered in Rajasthan; (iii) England transferred the technology of zinc from India in 1736. British metallurgy documents do not mention zinc at all prior to this transfer.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2009-1-3 04:09 AM
Shipping and Shipbuilding:
Shipbuilding was one of India's major export industries until the British dismantled it and formally banned it. Medieval Arab sailors purchased their boats in India. The Portuguese also continued to get their boats from India and not Europe. Some of the world's largest and most sophisticated ships were built in India and China.
The compass and other navigation tools were already in use in the Indian Ocean long before Europe. (Nav is the Sanskrit word for boat, and is the root word in navigation and navy.) Using their expertise in the science of seafaring, Indians participated in the earliest-known ocean-based trading system.
Few people know that an Indian naval pilot, named Kanha, was hired by Vasco da Gama to captain his ships and take him to India. Some of Europe's acclaimed 'discoveries' in navigation were in fact appropriations of a well-established thriving trade system in the Indian Ocean. Contrary to European portrayals that Indians knew only coastal navigation, deep-sea shipping had existed in India as Indian ships had been sailing to islands such as the Andamans, Lakshdweep and Maldives around 2,000 years ago. Kautilya describes the times that are good and bad for seafaring. There is also extensive archival material on the Indian Ocean trade in Greek, Roman, and Southeast Asian sources.
Author: buddy35 Time: 2009-1-3 04:10 AM
Forest Management:
Many interesting findings have recently come out about the way forests and trees were managed by each village and how a careful method was applied to harvest medicines, firewood and building material in accordance with natural renewal rates. There is now a database being built of 'sacred groves' across India. Once again, it's a story of an economic asset falling into disuse and abuse because of the dismantling of local governance and disrespect for traditional systems.
Furthermore, when scholars try to explain India's current ecological disasters, they seldom mention the large-scale logging of Indian timber by the British in order to fund the two world w